The Project Gutenberg eBook of Every Step in Canning, by Grace Viall Gray (2024)

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Title: Every Step in Canning

Author: Grace Viall Gray

Release Date: October 17, 2004 [eBook #13775]

Language: English

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***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EVERY STEP IN CANNING***

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BY

GRACE VIALL GRAY, PH.B., ED.B

Formerly Associate Professorof Home Economics, Iowa State College

1920

PREFACE

It was six years ago that I first heard of the One Period,Cold-Pack Method of canning. A little circular was put in my handone day at a federated club meeting announcing the fact that in afew weeks there would be a cold-pack demonstration about fiftymiles away. Immediately I announced that I was going to thedemonstrations. So leaving my small daughter with my mother, I wentto the Normal School at DeKalb, Illinois, and heard and saw for thefirst time cold-pack canning.

It is sufficient to say that those three days were so crowdedfull of interest and new messages on the gospel of canning that Ifelt amply repaid for going fifty miles. As a result of that trip,the first story ever published on cold-pack canning appeared inThe Country Gentleman and I had the pleasure of writing it.So enthused was I over this new, efficient and easy way to can notonly fruits but hard vegetables, such as peas, corn and beans, thatI wanted to carry the good news into the kitchen of other busyhousewives and mothers.

My mother had insisted that I take with me my younger sister,just from college, but with no domestic science tendencies. So,much against her wishes, preferring rather to do some settlementwork, my sister went with me. The canning was so interesting thatfor the first time in her life, my sister became enthusiastic overone phase of cooking. My mother was so pleased at this zeal thatwhen she received my sister's letter written from DeKalb, saying,"Mother, I am enthused about this canning and want to caneverything in sight this summer," she hastily washed all availableglass jars and tops and had everything in readiness for youngdaughter's return. And we canned. We were not content to can alonebut invited all the neighbors in and taught them how to can. Ourcommunity canned more things and more unusual things, including thehard vegetables, that year than they had ever attempted before.

Do not think for one minute it was all easy sailing, for therewere doubting Thomases, but it only took time and results toconvert even the most skeptical ones. And here I must make aconfession. It was much easier for my sister, unversed in any phaseof canning, to master this new method than it was for me with myfour years' training course and my five years of teaching canningbehind me. And this is the reason. She had nothing to "unlearn,"she knew no other method whereas I had to "unlearn" all my previousmethods.

The one period, cold-pack method is so entirely different fromthe old hot pack or open kettle method that to be successful youmust forget all you ever knew and be willing to be taught anew. Andright here is where many women "fall down"—they are notwilling to admit that they know nothing about it and so do not getaccurate information about it. They are so afraid of appearingignorant. This false feeling is the greatest obstacle in woman'sway.

I still go into small towns on my lecture trips and women willsay, "Oh, that cold-pack canning isn't new to me. I have used itfor thirty years." And when I show my surprise, they furtherenlighten me with, "and my mother used it before me, too." With alittle tactful questioning I usually get these answers: "Ofcourse, I do not hot dip and cold dip. I never heard of thatbefore. I pack the products into the cold jars and for allvegetables I use a preserving powder because there is no way onearth to keep corn and peas and such things unless you putsomething into them to keep them. Fruit will keep all right. Then Icook them in my wash boiler until they are done." And when I ask,"How do you know when they are done," I invariably get the answer,"Oh, I take out a jar once in a while and try it." It seems likesuch a hopeless task to change all these old-fashioned, out-of-datemethods of cooking but with a great amount of patience and muchactual canning it can usually be done. Not always, of course, forthere are some women who seem to delight in sticking to the oldrather than try the new.

The present book is therefore designed for all interested ingreater efficiency in the home, including not only students of homeeconomics but all persons who have charge of homes and areinterested in learning new, efficient, time and labor savingmethods.

In the preparation of this book I have received much help fromMr. O.H. Benson, Agriculturist in charge of the government Boys'and Girls' Club Work, and my first instructor in Cold-Pack Canning.I also wish to acknowledge my appreciation to those who have helpedto make this book possible by contributing information, advice andencouragement.

GRACE VIALL GRAY.

October, 1919.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

GETTING READY TO CAN

Before the World War, housewives had lost the good habit ofcanning, preserving and pickling. It was easier to buy Californiafruits by the case and canned vegetables by the dozen or half dozencans, according to the size of the family. There is no doubt it wascheaper and decidedly easier to purchase canned fruits, vegetables,greens, soups and meats than to take time and strength in the veryhottest season of the year to do our own canning.

But what was true then is not true now. The war taught usthrift. The crime of wasting even a few tomatoes or berries hassunk into our minds to stay forever; scientific canning methodshave been adopted by the modern woman. Women who had never cannedin days before the war had to can during war days. Food was soscarce and so high in price that to buy fancy or even plain cannedproducts was a severe strain on the average housewife's purse. TheAmerican woman, as was to be expected, came quickly and eagerly tothe front with the solution and the slogan: "More gardens and morecanning and preserving at home."

A great garden and canning movement swept the whole country. AsI have just said, women who had never canned before became vitallyinterested in putting up not merely a few jars of this and that,but jars upon jars of canned fruits, vegetables and greens; and sogreat was their delight in the finished products that again andagain I heard them say: "Never again shall we depend upon thegrocery to supply us with canned goods."

If these women had been obliged to use the same methods thattheir grandmothers used before them, they would have canned justthe same, because it was their patriotic duty to do so; but theywould have canned without the enthusiasm and zeal that was soapparent during the summers of 1917 and 1918. This enthusiasm was aresult of new canning methods, methods unknown to our grandmothers.The women of to-day were forced into a new field and learned howsatisfying and well worth while the results were. It is safe toguarantee that every home-canning recruit will become ahome-canning veteran.

The fascination of doing one's own canning after one has learnedhow simple and economical it is will be lasting. No one need fearthat home canning is going to suffer because the war ended theimmediate necessity for it. Home canning has come into its ownbecause of the war, and it has come to stay because of its manymerits.

There are four methods of canning that are employed by women allover the United States. They are the "open-kettle," the"intermittent," the "cold-water" and the "cold-pack" methods.

DRAWBACKS OF THE OLD METHODS

The "open-kettle," or "hot-pack," method is the oldest. It waslargely used in the pre-war days. The food is completely cooked inthe preserving kettle, and is then packed into hot, sterilizedjars, after which the jars are sealed. As the packing into the jaris done after the sterilization has been completed, there is alwaysa possibility of bacteria and spores entering the jar with thecooked food and the air. Fruits can be handled successfully in thisway, but this method cannot be used for vegetables, greens andmeats. It is a very laborious, hot and hard way to can. Modernhousewives are discarding it more and more every year and arebeginning to place their trust in the newer and far more scientificmethods of canning.

The "intermittent," or fractional sterilization, method is stillbeloved by some people who cling to the sure and hate to ventureinto the new. Vegetables can be handled by this method as can allfruits and meats. It is used rather extensively in the South, wherethey say the conditions do not favor "cold-pack." The greatobjection to this method of canning is that it requires threeperiods of sterilization on three different days and three liftingsof jars in and out of the sterilizer.

What is sometimes called the "cold-water" method of canningshould not be confused with the "cold-pack" method. The"cold-water" is often used in connection with the canning ofrhubarb, green gooseberries and a comparatively few other sourberry fruits. If the "cold-water" method is used we would suggestthat the product be thoroughly washed, placed in a strainer,scalding water poured over it, and the product then packed at once,in practically a fresh state, in the jars, and clean, cold waterapplied until the jars are filled. If these steps are takencarefully and quickly the method in most cases will be successfulwith such acid products as I mentioned. As the products will haveto be cooked before they can be used many housewives do notconsider it any saving of time or labor to follow this method.

THE COLD-PACK METHOD

The method of to-day that came into its own during the war isknown as the "cold-pack" method of canning. It fought a long fightto prove that it was a very efficient, economical and satisfactoryprocess for busy housewives to can everything that grows.

This is the method that I shall mostly refer to in this book,and if I should omit the phrase "cold-pack" you will know that I amreferring to it. "Cold-pack" simply means that the products arepacked cold in their fresh and natural state in the glass jars orcontainers. To the fruits hot sirup is applied; to the vegetableshot water and a little salt are added. The sterilization is done inthe glass jars or tin containers after they are partly or entirelysealed, making it practically impossible for bacteria or spores toenter after the product has once been carefully sterilized orcooked. In following this method vegetables should first beblanched in boiling water or live steam, then quickly plunged intocold water and the skins removed. The products are then packed incontainers and sterilized according to the instructions and recipesgiven later.

When we use the term sterilizing we simply mean cooking theproduct for a certain period of time after the jar has been filledwith food. It is sometimes called processing. Sterilizing,processing, boiling and cooking are all interchangeable terms andmean one and the same thing.

By this "cold-pack," or cold-fill, method of canning, all foodproducts, including fruits, vegetables and meats, can besuccessfully sterilized in a single period with but one handling ofthe product in and out of the canner.

All the flavor is retained, the product is not cooked to a mushypulp, and the labor and time needed for the canning are less thanin any other method. The housewife's canning enemy, mold, iseliminated and all bacteria and bacterial spores which causevegetables and meat to spoil are destroyed.

EXPENSIVE OUTFITS NOT ESSENTIAL

For this "cold-pack" method you can use whatever equipment youhave in the kitchen. Complicated equipment is not essential. Manyof us have purchased commercial outfits, for we know we can turnout more at the end of a day and have found it well worth while toinvest a few dollars in equipment that enabled us to be moreefficient. But if you are a beginner and do not care to put anymoney in an unknown venture use the available things at hand, justto prove to yourself and others that it can be done.

Every type of glass jar manufactured can be used except thosewhich are sealed with wax. So dig into your storerooms, attics andbasements and bring forth all your old jars. If a top is in goodcondition and will make a perfect seal when adjusted with a goodrubber you can use that jar.

If the tops cannot be restored to good condition it is pooreconomy to use them. Imperfectly sealed jars are probablyresponsible for more spoiled canned goods than any other cause.Good tops and good rubbers are requisites for good canning.

For your canner, or sterilizer, you may use a wash boiler or agalvanized bucket, such as is used for a garbage pail—a newone, of course. Either is excellent where the family is small andthe canning is accordingly light. Some use the reservoir of thecookstove while others employ a large vat. If you should have tobuy the wash boiler or pail see that it has a tight-fitting coverand be sure the pail does not leak. Then all you have to do is tosecure what we call a false bottom, something that will keep thejars of fruit from touching the direct bottom of the boiler orpail. This false bottom, remember, is absolutely necessary, forwithout it the jars will break during the boiling.

For this false bottom use a wire netting of half-inch mesh andcut it to fit the bottom of the sterilizer, whether boiler, pail orbucket. If you haven't any netting and do not care to purchase it awooden bottom can be made to fit the sterilizer, or if that is notavailable put thin pieces of wood in the bottom—anything tokeep the jars from coming in direct contact with the bottom of thesterilizer.

If you have only a small quantity of berries or fruit to can usea deep saucepan with a tight-fitting cover and a few slats of wood.This rack is absolutely necessary to keep the contents of the jarsfrom becoming overheated. Even if they should not break there is atendency for part of the contents to escape under the cover and belost. Do not use hay, old clothes, newspapers or excelsior for afalse bottom; they are unsatisfactory because they do not allowproper circulation of water.

Individual jar holders are very convenient and are preferred bymany women to the racks. Inexpensive racks with handles are on themarket and are worth what they cost in saved nerves and unburnedfingers. Some hold eight jars, others hold twelve. So it just lieswith you, individual housekeeper, whether you want a rack that willhold all your jars or a set of individual holders that handles themseparately.

To return to the subject of the canner, let me add that nomatter what kind you use, it must be at least three inches deeperthan the tallest jar. This will give room for the rack and an extrainch or two so that the water will not boil over.

Besides the canners, the jars, the rubber rings and the rack youwill need one kettle for boiling water, into which the product maybe put for scalding or blanching; another kettle for water—ifyou haven't running water—for the "cold dip."

If you use a homemade rack without handles you should have a jarlifter of some kind for placing in and removing jars from thecanner. If individual holders are used this is not necessary, asthey contain an upright bail. Some women use a wire potato masherfor lifting the jars out of the canners. Other kitchen equipment,such as scales, knives, spoons, wire basket or a piece ofcheesecloth or muslin for blanching or scalding the product, andthe kitchen clock play their part in canning.

No canning powder or any preservative is needed. If the productis cooked in closed jars in the hot-water bath as directed the foodwill be sterilized so that it will keep indefinitely. If it isdesired to add salt, sugar, sirup, vinegar or other flavor this maybe done when the product is packed in the jar.

A great many people have been led to believe through advertisingmatter that it is both safe and practical to use canning compoundsfor the preserving of vegetables which have proved hard to keepunder the commonly known methods of canning. The first argumentagainst the use of a canning compound is that it is unnecessary. Itis possible to sterilize any fruit or vegetable which grows ontree, vine, shrub or in the ground by this cold-pack, single-periodmethod of canning, without the use of a compound. The secondargument against it is that many of the canning compounds arepositively harmful to health. Some of them contain as high asninety-five per cent of boric acid. Directors of county and statefairs should exclude from entry all fruits and vegetables that havebeen preserved in any canning compound. Perfect fruit can beproduced without any chemical preservative. The third argument isthat they are expensive.

There are many modifications of the original wash boiler andgarbage pail cookers. These are all known as the hot-water-bathoutfits. In these outfits the products are all cooked in boilingwater.

There are condensed-steam cookers under various names, where theproduct is cooked in condensed steam. These steamers are generallyused for everyday cookery.

The water-seal outfit, the steam-pressure outfit and thealuminum pressure cooker follow in order of efficiency as regardsthe time required to sterilize food.

Following the hot-water canner in simplicity of construction andmanipulation is the water-seal cooker. The temperature of thehot-water-seal outfit is a little higher than the homemade orhot-water-bath outfit; so time is saved in the sterilizing.

The steam-pressure and the pressure cookers are more complicatedbut more efficient. Some prefer the aluminum pressure cookerbecause it can be used for everyday cooking in the home.

Pressure cookers are expensive, but they are worth their price,as they are used daily and not just during the canning season.

Here are examples of how they rank as to time required: In ahot-water-bath outfit soft fruits must be sterilized sixteenminutes; in a steamer, sixteen minutes; in a water-seal outfit,twelve minutes; in a steam-pressure-outfit under five pounds ofsteam, ten minutes; in an aluminum pressure cooker outfit with tenpounds of steam, five minutes.

It takes longest to can with a homemade or hot-water-bathoutfit; the shortest and quickest method is with the pressurecooker that has a pressure of ten pounds or more. Each housewifehas different financial problems, different hours of working anddifferent ways of working. Where quick work is desired and expenseis no item the pressure cooker is advisable; where money is scarceand time is no object the homemade outfit answers. Each one mustdecide which outfit is best for her own particular case. It mattersnot which outfit you have—they have all been thoroughlytested and approved by experts. Each one does the work.

This equipment for canning should be in all kitchens: four-quartkettle for blanching; steamer for steaming greens; colander; quartmeasure; funnel; good rubber rings; sharp paring knives; jaropener; wire basket and a piece of cheesecloth one yard square forblanching; pineapple scissors; one large preserving spoon; onetablespoon; one teaspoon; one set of measuring spoons; measuringcup; jar lifter; either a rack for several jars or individual jarholders; and a clock.

The manufacturers, realizing that boys and girls must be keptbusy during the vacation months, have made some wonderful devicesfor outdoor canning. Would it not be a good plan to buy one for theyoung people of your family and give them something definite andworth while to do in summer? You know little brains and hands mustbe kept busy—if not usefully employed they are often inclinedto mischief. This type of cooker furnishes its own heat; so it canbe used in the back yard, in the orchard or under the trees in thefront yard.

Remember that the higher the altitude the lower the degree ofheat required to boil water. Time-tables given in instructions forcanning are usually based upon the requirements of an altitude of500 feet above sea level. Generally speaking, for every 4000-footincrease in altitude it will be well to add twenty per cent to thetime required as given in recipes or time schedules for the canningof all kinds of fruits, vegetables, greens and meats.

CHAPTER II

SOFT FRUITS AND BERRIES

Having decided on your canning outfit, whether you are going tocan in boiling water, in a condensed steam cooker, or in steamunder pressure; having gathered together the necessary tools, suchas spoons, knives and a funnel; having raided the storeroom andcollected some jars, you are now ready for the actual work ofcanning.

It is rather unfortunate that strawberries should be one of thevery hardest products to can with good results. The canning itselfis simple—all berries are quickly and easily canned—butstrawberries always shrink, are apt to turn a little brown, and,what distresses us most of all, they float to the top of thejar.

The berry's tendency to shrink is responsible for loss of coloras well as its floating qualities. However, if you will beexceedingly careful to remove the berries from the canner theminute the clock says the sterilizing period is over, you will havea fairly good product. Two minutes too long will produce a verydark, shrunken berry. So be careful of the cooking time. Anotherthing that makes a good-looking jar is to pack a quart ofberries—all kinds of berries, not merelystrawberries—into a pint jar. If you will get that many inyou will have a much better-looking jar, with very little liquid atthe bottom. It does not hurt the berries at all to gently pressdown on them with a silver spoon while you are packing them intothe jar.

We know we are going to get a quart of berries into every pintjar, so we know just how many quarts of berries we will need tofill the necessary jars for the next winter's use.

The first thing to do is to test each jar to see that there areno cracks, no rough edges to cut the rubber, and to see whether thecover and clamp fit tightly, if a clamp type of jar is used. Thebail that clamps down the glass tops should go down with a goodspring. If it does not, remove the bail and bend it into shape bytaking it in both hands and pressing down in the middle with boththumbs. Do not bend it too hard, for if it goes down with too muchof a snap it will break the jar. This testing of the bails shouldbe done every year. The bails on new jars are sometimes too tight,in which case remove the bail and spread it out. After the bail hasbeen readjusted, test it again. The chances are it will be justright. Of course all this testing takes time, but it pays.

If you are using some old Mason jars put a rubber on each jar,fill the jar with hot water, and then put the cover on tight andinvert. This is a sure test for leakage. Never use a Mason captwice unless the cover and collar are separate so that both can becompletely sterilized. Fortunately the old-fashioned Mason jarmetal cover to which a porcelain cap is fastened is going out ofstyle.

If you still have some of these old covers it will be economy tothrow them away. You will be money ahead in the end. After thesetops have been used once it is impossible to make a fasteningbetween the porcelain and the metal so tight that it is notpossible for the liquid to seep through and cause the contents tospoil. This accounts for many failures when old tops are used. Forthis reason never use the old-fashioned, zinc-topped covers.

The new and safe Mason jar covers consist of two parts, themetal collar and the porcelain cap. They are for sale at allgrocery or hardware stores.

If you are using the vacuum-seal jars which have a compositionattached to the lacquered tops, carefully examine this rubbercomposition to see that it is perfect. This composition should goentirely round the top and should not be cut or broken in anyplace. If it is the top must be discarded for a perfect one.

Of course with this type of jar no rubber rings are necessary,as the rubber composition on the lacquered top does thesealing.

It is a wise plan to go round the tops and over the inside ofall new glass jars with a heavy and dull knife to scrape off anyslivers of glass or bursted blisters that may be still clinging tothe jars. Those on the tops cut through the rubber and causeleakage. Those in the jars may get into the product. I often findthese splinters, particularly on new straight-sided jars.

It matters not what type of jar you use. Use what you have athand, but if you are buying new jars consider the following thingsbefore making your selections: No metal, unless it is enameled orlacquered, should come in contact with the food. The jars should beof smooth, well-finished glass. The color of the jar does notaffect the keeping qualities of the food. The top or part of thetop that comes in contact with the contents should be all in onepiece, so as not to offer a place for the accumulation of organismsand dirt. The jars which have nearly straight sides and a widemouth or opening are easier to wash and facilitate better, quickerand easier packing of the product.

Wash the jars in soap and water. Rinse in boiling water. Somepeople temper new jars so they will stand the shock of hot water orhot sirup without breaking. If you wish to take this extraprecaution put the jars in a dishpan or kettle of cold water afterthey have been washed in soapy water; bring the water slowly to aboil and let it boil fifteen minutes. After the jars are ready testthe rubber rings. This may seem a useless precaution, but it is anecessary one, for there is no one detail in the business ofcanning that is more important. Even in the best boxes of rubbersthere is occasionally a black sheep, and one black sheep may causethe loss of a jar.

Test each rubber before you use it by pressing it firmly betweenthe thumbs and forefingers, stretching it very slightly. If itseems soft and spongy discard it. All rubbers fit for canningshould be firm, elastic, and should endure a stretching pullwithout breaking. A good rubber ring will return promptly to placewithout changing the inside diameter.

A great many women are laboring under the wrong impression thatcolor affects the quality of a ring. Some women insist on red, andothers on white. Color is given to rings by adding coloring matterduring the manufacturing process. The color of the ring is no indexto its usefulness in home canning.

Use only fresh, sound strawberries or other berries. There is alittle knack about preparing the strawberries that few housewivesknow. Hull the berries by twisting the berries off the hull,instead of pulling the hull from the berry as most women do. Youwill have a better-looking berry if you will be careful about this.Place the berries in a strainer and pour cold water over them tocleanse them.

HOW TO ADJUST THE COVERS

Never allow the berries or any fruit to stand in water, as theflavor and color are destroyed by water-soaking. Pack in glassjars, pressing the berries down tightly, but without crushing them.Put the rubber on the jar if you are using a jar requiring arubber. Pour hot sirup over the berries. Put the top of the jar inplace, but only partially tighten it.

If using the screw-top jars, such as the Mason, screw down withthe thumb and little finger, not using force but stopping when thecover catches.

If using vacuum-seal jars put the cover on and the spring inplace. The spring will give enough to allow the steam toescape.

In using glass-top jars with the patent wire snap, put the coverin place, the wire over the top and leave the clamp up.

The cover on a glass jar must not be tight while the product iscooking, because the air will expand when heated, and if the coveris not loose enough to allow the steam to escape the pressure mayblow the rubber out or break the jar.

The product is now ready for the canner.

STERILIZING

If you are using the homemade outfit, such as wash-boiler orgarbage pail, all berries and soft fruits are sterilized sixteenminutes; in all commercial hot-water-bath outfits and in condensedsteam, sixteen minutes; in the water-seal, twelve minutes; in thesteam pressure under five pounds of steam, ten minutes; and in thepressure cooker under ten pounds of steam, five minutes. Do notallow the pressure to run above ten pounds for soft fruits; fifteenpounds makes them mushy.

If you use any type of hot-water-bath outfit be sure the wateris boiling when the fruit is lowered into the canner, and keepit boiling vigorously for the entire sixteen minutes. At theend of the sterilizing time, immediately remove the jarsfrom the canner.

In taking canned goods from boiling water care is needed to seethat they are protected from drafts. If necessary close the windowsand doors while lifting the jars out, as a sudden draft might breakthem.

Examine rubbers to see that they are in place. Sometimes if acover is screwed down too tight the pressure of the steam from theinside causes the rubber to bulge out. Simply loosen the cover athread or two, push the rubber back into place and thentighten.

In case the rubber does not seem to fit well or seems to be apoor rubber it should be replaced by a new one, and the jarreturned to the cooker for five minutes.

The jars should be sealed tight—covers screwed down,clamps put in place—immediately after they are removed fromthe cooker.

Invert the jar to test the joint, then let it cool. If the sealis not perfect correct the fault and return the jar to the cookerfor five minutes if hot, ten minutes if the jar is cold.

Do not invert vacuum-seal jars. These should be allowed to cool,and then be tested by removing the spring or clamp and lifting thejars by the cover only. Lift the jar only half an inch, holding itover the table, so that in case the lid does not hold the jar andcontents will not be damaged. Or, better still, tap round the edgeof the cover with a rule. An imperfect seal will give a hollowsound.

As light injures delicately colored fruits and vegetables, it iswise to store them in dark places, such as cupboards, or basementor attic shelves protected from the light. Black cambric tacked tothe top shelf and suspended over the other shelves is a sufficientprotection from light. A discarded window shade can be rolled downover the shelves and easily pulled up when you desire to take a jarfrom the shelves.

Canned goods are best kept at a temperature below seventydegrees Fahrenheit, where that is at all possible.

STEPS IN CANNING SOFT FRUITS AND BERRIES

It might be well to enumerate the steps in berry and soft-fruitcanning, or do what we called in our schooldays "review it":

1. Get the canner and all its accessories ready.

2. Test and wash jars and tops and put in water tosterilize.

3. Test rubber rings.

4. Make sirup and put in double boiler to keep hot

5. Prepare the product—hull, seed, stem.

6. Place berries or fruit in strainer or colander.

7. Rinse by pouring cold water over product.

8. Pack from strainer into hot jar.

9. Use big spoon to get a firm pack.

10. Dip rubber in hot water to cleanse it and put it in place onthe jar.

11. Pour the hot sirup over the fruit at once.

12. Put top of jar on, but not tight.

13. Ready for canner.

14. Sterilize for the necessary length of time, according to theoutfit you are using:

15. Remove from canner.

16. Tighten cover, except vacuum-seal jar, which sealsautomatically.

17. Test joint.

18. Three or four days later, if perfectly air-tight, label andstore in a dark place.

These steps are followed for strawberries, blackberries,blueberries, dewberries, huckleberries, gooseberries, raspberries,and for all soft fruits, such as cherries, currants, grapes andfigs.

The other soft fruits, such as peaches and apricots, which havea skin, are scalded or "hot dipped" for one to two minutes inboiling water or steam and are then plunged into cold water. Thesetwo steps of hot-dipping and cold dipping make the removal of skinsa very simple operation. After the skins are removed the fruit isput into the hot jars and the process continued from Step 8, aswith strawberries.

SIRUPS

Of course you are wondering about the sirups for the differentfruits. There is no set rule for making sirup. It is not necessaryto use sirup in canning fruits. The amount of sugar used in thesirup will depend upon the individual taste. In a first-classproduct there should be enough sirup to improve its flavor, but notenough to make it take the place in the diet of a sweet preserverather than a fresh fruit.

The sirups are made either with varying proportions of sugar andwater or with the same proportions boiled different lengths oftime. What is known as the California sirup is made with threeparts of sugar to two parts of water, boiled gently to differentconcentrations.

Thin Sirup. For a thin sirup take three cups of sugar andtwo cups of water. Mix sugar and heat until the sugar is dissolved.This is used for all sweet fruits not too delicate in texture andcolor, as apples, cherries, pears, or for fruits in which moresugar will be added in preparation for the table.

Medium Thin Sirup. The sugar and water should be boiledabout four minutes, or until it begins to be sirupy. This is usedfor raspberries, peaches, blackberries, currants, etc.

Medium Thick Sirup. Boil the sugar and water until itwill pile up over the edge of the spoon when it is tipped. This isused for sour or acid fruits, as plums, gooseberries, apricots,sour apples, and some of the delicately colored fruits, asstrawberries.

Thick Sirup. The sugar and water are boiled until it willform a ball in the spoon and cannot be poured from the spoon. Thisis used for preserves.

It is possible to get more, sometimes almost twice as much,sirup into a quart jar containing large fruits, as apples andpears, than into a quart jar containing small fruits, as currantsor blackberries.

There is a little knack worth knowing about combining the sugarand water for the sirup. If the sugar is sifted into the boilingwater just as fine-grained cereals are sifted into water, therewill be no scum formed. This is a saving of sugar.

If you wish to can strawberries for the market or to win a prizeat the county or state fairs, can them as follows:

Canned by this recipe, strawberries will not rise to the top ofthe sirup. Use only fresh, ripe, firm and sound berries. Preparethem, and add eight ounces of sugar and two tablespoonfuls of waterto each quart of berries. Boil slowly for fifteen minutes in anenameled or acid-proof kettle. Allow the berries to cool and remainseveral hours or over-night in the covered kettle. Pack the coldberries in hot glass jars. Put rubbers and caps of jars inposition, not tight. Sterilize for the length of time given belowfor the type of outfit used:

Remove the jars, tighten the covers, invert the jars to cool andtest the joints. Wrap the jars with paper to prevent bleaching.

CHAPTER III

HARD FRUITS

PINEAPPLES

The object of canning citrus fruits is, first, to save thesurplus and by-products; second, to furnish wholesome fruits atreasonable cost to more of our people; third, to help the producerto transform by-products into net profits.

Almost every one likes canned pineapple, but some housewivesstopped canning this fruit because they found that when cooked insirup it seemed to get tough and less palatable. Vegetable andfruit fibers are toughened when cooked with sugar for any length oftime, so in all cases where you desire to keep the product asNature grew it avoid this form of cooking.

When the product is put into the jars with a sirup and cooked inthe jar you will have a product superior to the one that is cookedover the direct fire in the kettle with the sirup.

But pineapple slices or pieces are so hard they cannot be putdirectly into the jars as berries are. Pineapples must undergo apreliminary process to make them palatable and soft. Thispreliminary process is known in canning as "blanching."

After the pineapple has been prepared by paring and removing theeyes, it can be left in slices or cut into cubes. In cutting holdthe pineapple at the top and use a sharp knife. It is then placedin a wire basket or a piece of cheesecloth for the blanching.Blanching means to immerse the product in boiling water for acertain length of time to reduce its bulk and soften it.

Pineapples are blanched for five minutes. We scald peaches andapricots, which are soft fruits; but we blanch pineapples, applesand quinces, the hard fruits.

Scalding means to immerse the product in boiling water for avery short time—just long enough to loosen the skins.Blanching is just a longer period of scalding.

When you blanch pineapples use only enough water to cover them.This same blanching water can be used for making the sirup. Itcontains much of the pineapple flavor and there is no reason fordiscarding it. But this is absolutely the only blanching water thatis ever used. All other blanching water, particularly that in whichvegetables are blanched, is full of objectionable acids that wewant to get rid of, so under no circumstances must it be used. Butwith pineapples the object of blanching is primarily to soften thehard fiber, so there is no objection to using the blanchingwater.

After the pineapple has been in the covered kettle of boilingwater for five minutes, it is held under cold water until coolenough to handle. Never let it soak in cold water, as that willimpair its delicate flavor. After this it is packed into hotsterilized jars. Rubber rings are put on the jars, the covers areput in place—not tight—and the jars are put in thecanner.

Pineapple is sterilized for thirty minutes in a hot-water-bathoutfit; thirty minutes in a condensed steam outfit; twenty-fiveminutes in the water-seal; twenty-five minutes in the steampressure under five pounds of steam, and eighteen minutes in thepressure cooker under ten pounds of pressure. At the end of thesterilizing period the jars are removed, the covers completelytightened and the joints carefully tested for leakage.

A thin or medium-thin sirup is best for pineapples. Measure theblanching water and to every two cups of it add three cups ofsugar. If you wish the sirup thin heat until the sugar isdissolved. If medium-thin sirup is desired, boil it about fourminutes or until it begins to be sirupy.

STEPS IN CANNING PINEAPPLE

1. Cut the pineapple into slices of desired thickness.

2. Pare the slices. It is easier to pare the slices than to parethe whole pineapple.

3. Remove the eyes, using pineapple scissors to facilitate thework.

4. Blanch pineapple for five minutes in a small amount ofboiling water, using a wire basket or cheesecloth.

5. Cold-dip the pineapple.

6. Make a sirup, using the blanching water. Make a thin ormedium-thin sirup.

7. Pack the pineapple into hot sterilized jars, with goodrubbers on them.

8. Pour the sirup over the pineapple.

9. Put the tops of the jars on—not tight.

10. Sterilize for 30 minutes in hot-water-bath outfit, 30minutes in condensed-steam outfit, 25 minutes in water-seal outfit,25 minutes in steam pressure (5 pounds), 18 minutes in pressurecooker (10 pounds).

11. Remove from canner, tighten covers and inspect rubber andjoints.

APPLES

Here are six ways in which canned apples may be used: as abreakfast dish, with cream and sugar; baked like fresh apples; inapple salad, often served for lunch or supper; as a relish withroast pork—the apples may be fried in the pork fat or thecores may be cooked with roast pork for flavoring; and for appledumplings, deep apple pie and other desserts in which whole applesare desirable. The sirup of canned whole apples can be used forpudding sauces or fruit drinks.

Apples are another hard fruit which require blanching, as itgreatly improves their texture and appearance.

Apples and some other fruits, such as pears and quinces, have atendency to turn brown when allowed to stand after they are cut. Toprevent their discoloring the pieces may be dropped into mild saltwater as they are pared and sliced. Let them stand for fiveminutes, then wash them in clear water and pack. Use a thin sirupfor canning apples.

Summer apples are not firm enough to keep well when canned. Theycook up and lose flavor. They may, however, be canned to be used ina short time. Windfall apples may be pared, cored and sliced, usingwater, and only a small quantity of that, instead of sirup, andcanned for pies.

To be able to can windfall and cull apples and thus have themfor home use through the entire year is a great advantage to allfarmers who grow them. They can be sold on the market canned whenthey would not bring a cent in the fresh state.

The windfall and cull apples may be divided into two grades. Thefirst grade would include the whole reasonably sound fruit; thesecond grade the worm-eaten, partially decayed and injured fruit.Do not can any injured or decayed part nor allow apples to becomeoverripe before canning.

Canning Whole Reasonably Firm Apples. Wash the apples.Remove cores and blemishes. Place whole apples in blanching tray orblanching cloth and blanch in boiling hot water for one or twominutes. Remove and plunge quickly into cold water. Pack in largeglass jars. Pour over the product a hot thin sirup. Place rubberand top in position. Seal partially—not tight.

Sterilize jars twenty minutes in hot-water-bath outfit and incondensed steam, fifteen minutes in water-seal, ten minutes insteam-pressure outfit with five pounds of steam pressure, fiveminutes in aluminum pressure-cooker outfit, under ten pounds ofsteam pressure. Remove jars, tighten covers, invert to cool andtest joints.

Firm and tart apples may be cored and peeled first, then cannedby the above recipe.

Canning Apples for Pie Filling. Use second grade ofwindfalls or culls. Wash, core, pare and remove all decayed spots.Slice apple quickly into a basin containing slightly salted coldwater—about one tablespoon of salt per gallon—toprevent discoloring. Pack fresh cold product in glass jars. Add onecupful of hot thin sirup to each quart of fruit. Put on the rubbersand screw on tops, but do not seal completely. Sterilize twelveminutes in hot-water bath or condensed-steam outfit; ten minutes inwater-seal outfit; six minutes under five pounds of steam pressure;four minutes in aluminum pressure cooker. Remove jars, tightencovers, invert to cool and test joint. Store.

This filling can be used for making apple pies in the same waythat fresh apples would be used, with the exception that the sirupmust be poured off and less sugar should be used. Since the appleshave already been cooked, only enough heat is needed to cook thecrust and to warm the apples through. Pies may be baked in sevenminutes. The apple pies made with these apples are, in the opinionof many housekeepers, as good as those made with fresh fruit, andthey can be made in less time and are less expensive.

The only difference between canning apples for pies and saladsor whole is that when wanted for pies the apples should be slicedimmediately after placing in cold slightly salted water.

Canning Quartered Apples for Fruit Salads. Selectbest-grade culls of firm and rather tart varieties. Core, pare andquarter. Drop into basin containing slightly salted cold water.Pack these quartered pieces tightly in jars. Add a cup of hot thinsirup to each quart. Place rubber and top in position, partiallyseal—not tight. Sterilize twelve minutes in hot-water bathand condensed-steam outfits; ten minutes in water-seal outfit; sixminutes under five pounds of steam pressure; four minutes inaluminum pressure cooker. Remove jars, tighten covers, invert tocool and test joints. Store.

ORANGES

Canning Whole Oranges and Other Citrus Fruits. Selectwindfall or packing-plant culls. Use no unsound or decayed fruit.Remove skin and white fiber on surface. Blanch fruit in boilingwater one and a half minutes. Dip quickly in cold water. Packcontainers full. Add boiling hot thin sirup. Place rubber and capin position and partially seal—not tight.

Sterilize twelve minutes in hot-water-bath and condensed-steamoutfits; eight minutes in water-seal outfit; six minutes insteam-pressure outfit under five pounds of steam; four minutes inaluminum pressure-cooker outfit. Remove jars, tighten covers,invert to cool and test joints. Wrap glass jars with paper toprevent bleaching, and store.

Canning Sliced Oranges for Salad Purposes. The orangesmay be divided into their natural sections or sliced with a knife.Pack jars or containers full. Pour over product hot thin sirup.Place rubber and cap in position. Partially seal—not tight.Sterilize ten minutes in hot-water-bath and condensed-steamoutfits; six minutes in water-seal outfit; five minutes insteam-pressure outfit with five pounds of steam; four minutes inaluminum pressure-cooker outfit under ten pounds of steam. Removejars, tighten covers, invert to cool and test the joints. Wrap jarswith paper to prevent bleaching, and store.

PEARS, QUINCES AND RHUBARB

Pears are prepared and canned just as the whole firm apples are,being blanched a minute and a half, cold-dipped and sterilized forthe same length of time as apples.

Quinces are so very hard they must be blanched like pineapples,but for a longer time. Six minutes' blanching is usually sufficientfor quinces. The sterilizing period can be determined by looking atthe chart.

If skins are left on rhubarb it keeps its pink color. The hotdip is not necessary and may be omitted. It removes some of theexcessive acid in the rhubarb which makes it objectionable to somepeople. Be very careful not to hot-dip the rhubarb more than oneminute, for it gets mushy. An advantage of the hot dip is that morerhubarb can be packed in a jar after it has been hot-dipped.

WHAT A BUSHEL OF FRUIT WILL YIELD

A great many women have no conception of how many jars of fruitthey will get from a bushel or half bushel of produce. It is wiseto have a little knowledge along this line, for it aids in planningthe winter's supply of canned goods as well as at marketingtime.

From one bushel of the various fruits you will get on theaverage the following:

CANNING WITHOUT SUGAR

Though all instructions indicate that sugar is necessary for thecanning of all kinds of fruits, it is not necessary for theirproper sterilization and preservation. Any fruit may besuccessfully sterilized by simply adding boiling water instead ofthe hot sirup. It is a well-known fact, however, that most fruitscanned in water will not retain so well their natural flavor,texture and color as fruit canned in sirup. When the product is tobe used for pies, salads, and so on it is not necessary to can insirup. When fruits canned in water are to be used for sauces, theproducts should be sweetened before use. In many instances itrequires more sugar to sweeten a sauce after canning than it doeswhen the product is canned in the hot sirup.

However, during the World War we had a good chance to test thefruits which we canned without sugar, when that commodity wasscarce and, in fact, impossible to get in very large quantities. Weused our fruits just as they were and considered them very good.This all goes to show that we can easily adjust ourselves toprevailing conditions. In canning without the sugar sirup, youwould follow these directions:

Cull, stem or seed, and clean fruit by placing in a strainer andpouring water over it until clean. Pack product thoroughly in glassjars until full; use table knife or tablespoon for packingpurposes. Pour over the fruit boiling water from kettle, placerubbers and caps in position, partially seal glass jars and placeproduce in canner.

If using hot-water-bath outfit sterilize from twenty to thirtyminutes. After sterilizing remove packs, seal glass jars, wrap inpaper to prevent bleaching, and store in a dry cool place.

When using a steam-pressure canner instead of the hot-water bathsterilize for ten minutes with five pounds of steam pressure. Neverallow the pressure to go over ten pounds when you are canning softfruits.

WHEN TO CAN

Inexperienced canners may not know when certain fruits are inseason and at their prime for canning. The list below isnecessarily subject to change, as seasons vary from year to year;but in normal years this table would hold true for the NorthernStates.

For your canning you will need as your guide the charts on thepages which follow. They are very simple and will tell you how toprepare all the various fruits, whether or not they are to beblanched, and if so exactly how many minutes, and how long to cookor sterilize the products, according to the outfit you areusing.

CHART FOR CANNING SOFT FRUITS AND BERRIES

NOTE.—When cooking products in pint or half-pint jarsdeduct three or four minutes from the time given above. Whencooking in two-quart jars add 3 or 4 minutes to time. The estimatesgiven are for quart jars.

CHAPTER IV

VEGETABLES

It is practical to can all vegetables, even such difficult onesas corn, peas and beans, by the cold-pack method of canning withoutusing any preservatives, if you will follow all directions,instructions and the time-table accurately. Vegetable canning is alittle more complicated than fruit canning.

TOMATOES

Every one likes canned tomatoes. In many homes more tomatoes arecanned than any other product. The housewife uses them for soups,for sauces and for seasoning many meat dishes. Some women say: "Ican preserve everything but tomatoes. They always spoil. What do Ido wrong?" If the following directions are followed tomatoes willnot spoil.

Tomatoes really are the easiest vegetable to can, because theperiod of sterilization is short, and many jars may be canned in aday, or if one is very busy a few jars may be canned daily withoutthe expenditure of a great deal of time.

The best tomatoes for canning are those of moderate size, smoothand uniformly ripe. When a tomato ripens unevenly or when it ismisshapen, it is difficult to peel, and the percentage of waste ishigh. Tomatoes should not be picked when they are green or partlyripe, for the flavor will not be so good as when they are allowedto remain upon the vines until fully ripe. Care should be taken,however, not to allow them to become overripe before canning.

In no instance should a tomato with a rotten spot be canned,even though the spot is cut out, for the occasional spoiled jarresulting from this attempted saving will cost more than the partlyspoiled tomatoes are worth. If the housewife will can onlyuniformly ripe, sound tomatoes, saving the small, uneven but soundfruit for tomato purée, she will have a muchbetter-looking pack and greater food value at the close of theseason. Yellow tomatoes may be canned in the same manner as are themore common red varieties, except that it is not necessary toremove the cores.

First of all, grade for ripeness, size and quality; this is toinsure a high-grade product. We could, of course, can differentsizes and shades together, but uniform products are more pleasingto the eye and will sterilize much more evenly. If the products areof the same ripeness and quality, the entire pack will receive theproper degree of cooking.

Wash the tomatoes. Have ready a kettle of boiling water. Put thetomatoes in a wire basket, or lay them on a piece of cheesecloth ora towel, twist the ends together to form a sack, and let this downinto the kettle. It is a good plan to slip a rubber band round theneck of this sack to hold the ends in place. The ends should belong enough to stand up out of the water and so avoid danger ofburning the fingers when removing the product.

Have the water boiling hard. Lower the tomatoes into the boilingwater. This is called scalding the tomatoes. We scald the tomatoesto loosen the skin. If the tomatoes are very ripe, one minutescalding will be sufficient. The average length of time fortomatoes, just perfect for canning, is one and a half minutes. Donot leave the tomatoes in the hot water until the skins break, asthis gives them a fuzzy appearance.

The scalding kettle always should be covered, to keep in all theheat possible. Begin to time from the minute the product isimmersed in the boiling water. If you wait until the water comesback to a boil, you will scald the product too long and have mushytomatoes.

Lift the tomatoes out of the hot water and plunge themimmediately into cold water, or hold them under the cold-waterfaucet. The cold-dip makes them easier to handle, separates theskin from the pulp, firms the texture, and coagulates the coloringmatter so it stays near the surface, giving them a rich, red color.Then the shock due to the sudden change from hot to cold and backto hot again seems to help kill the spores. Do not let the productstand in the cold-dip. The water becomes lukewarm, softens theproduct and allows bacteria to develop.

Take the tomato in the left hand and with a sharp knife cut outthe core. Be careful not to cut into the fleshy portion or seedcells, for this will scatter the seeds and pulp through the liquid,injuring the appearance of the product. Cut out the core beforeremoving the skin, for the skin will protect the pulp and therewill be less danger of breaking the tomato. If the tomatoes areripe and have been scalded properly, the skin can be slipped offwith the fingers.

The jars, rubbers and tops should be ready. Glass jars should behot, so there will be no danger of breakage in setting them in thehot water, and so they will not cool the water in the cooker belowthe boiling point.

Pack the tomatoes whole, pressing and shaking them well downtogether, but not using force enough to crush them.

Now we come to a point where tomatoes are different from mostvegetables. Beans, carrots, peas, and so on, have hot water addedto them. But as a large part of the tomato is water, no more isneeded. Another exception where no water is needed is with the"greens family." So with tomatoes we add no water, but add oneteaspoonful of salt and one teaspoonful of sugar, just forseasoning, to every quart jar. I think that tomatoes always areimproved by the addition of a little sugar, but this is notnecessary and can be omitted, as also can be the salt.

The salt in canning does not act as a preservative, but asseasoning; so if for any reason you forget the salt, do not bealarmed. Your products will keep perfectly without the salt.

THE WAY TO SEAL

The products are in the hot jars now. The jars do not need to befull in order to keep. If you were canning by the "open-kettle"method, the air in the partly filled jar would not have beensterilized, and might contain the bacteria which cause the productto ferment or mold. But by the cold pack, the air in the can issterilized while the product is being sterilized; and if the can isclosed immediately after cooking, a single spoonful may be cannedin a two-quart jar and the product will keep indefinitely.

Place Rubber and Cover on Jar. Fit the rubber. Use goodrubbers and see that they lie flat and fit close up to the can. Putthe covers in place.

Do Not Seal Glass Jars Tight. If using screw-top jarsscrew each cover down until it catches, then turn a quarter of around back; or screw down with the thumb and little finger, notusing force but stopping when the cover catches.

If using vacuum-seal jars put the cover on and the spring inplace. The spring will give enough to allow the steam toescape.

If using glass-top jars, with the patent wire snap, put thecover in place, the wire over the top and the clamp up.

The cover on a glass jar must not be tight while processing,because the air will expand when heated, and if the cover is notloose enough to allow the steam to escape, the pressure may blowthe rubber out or break the jar.

When canning in tin we cap and tip the cans at once. The tinwill bulge out, but is strong enough to withstand the pressure, andwhen the contents cool the can will come back into shape.

The jars are now ready for the canner. Tomatoes sterilized underboiling water require twenty-two minutes; in condensed-steamcooker, twenty-two minutes; in water-seal, eighteen minutes; insteam-pressure, with five pounds, fifteen minutes, and in thepressure cooker, at ten or fifteen pounds, ten minutes.

If you use the homemade outfit or any water-bath outfit be surethe water is boiling when the jars of tomatoes are lowered into thecanner. Time lost in bringing the contents to the point ofsterilization softens the tomatoes and results in inferior goods.Use the ordinary good sense with which you have been endowed inhandling the jars and you will have no breakage. At the end of thesterilizing period, remove the jars.

In taking canned goods from boiling hot water, care is needed tosee that they are protected from drafts. If necessary close thewindows and doors while lifting the jars out, for a sudden draftmight break them.

Examine rubbers to see that they are in place. Sometimes, if thecovers are screwed down too tight, the pressure of the steam fromthe inside causes the rubber to bulge out. Simply loosen the covera thread or two, push the rubber back into place and then tighten.In case the rubber does not seem to fit well or seems to be a poorrubber, it should be replaced by a new one and the jar returned tothe cooker for five minutes.

The jars should be sealed tight—covers screwed down,clamps put in place—immediately after they are removed fromthe cooker.

Invert to test the joint and cool. If the seal is not perfect,correct the fault, and return the jar to the cooker for fiveminutes if hot, ten minutes if jar is cold.

Do not invert vacuum-seal jars. These should be allowed to cooland then tested by removing the spring or clamp and lifting thejars by the cover only. Lift the jar only a half inch, holding itover the table so that, in case the lid does not hold, the jar andcontents will not be damaged. Or, better still, tap round the edgeof the cover with a ruler. An imperfect seal will cause a hollowsound.

Tomato Purée. Small, misshapen, unevenly ripenedtomatoes may be converted into tomato purée. Thetomatoes should be washed, run through a colander to remove skinsand cores, concentrated by cooking to about half the originalvolume, and packed in the jars. Rubbers and tops should then beplaced in position and the product sterilized for the same lengthof time as for canned tomatoes. Purée even may bekept in bottles sealed with sterilized corks and dipped severaltimes in paraffin.

HOW OTHER VEGETABLES ARE CANNED

All other vegetables are canned exactly like tomatoes, with twoexceptions. Tomatoes are scalded. All other vegetables areblanched. We scald tomatoes to loosen the skins and to start theflow of the coloring matter, which is later arrested or coagulatedby the cold-dip.

Blanching is scalding, only for a longer time. Scalding is neverfor more than two minutes. Blanching covers from three to thirtyminutes.

We blanch beans, peas, corn, cabbage, carrots, beets, turnips,and so on, for three to ten minutes. We blanch these vegetables toeliminate any objectionable acids or bitter flavors which may bepresent, and thus improve the flavor; to reduce the bulk so we canpack closer; to start the flow of the coloring matter; to improvethe texture of the vegetables by making them more tender, and toimprove the appearance by helping to make clear the liquid in thejar. Blanching is what makes for success in the cold-pack method ofcanning. Blanching is very important and must be carefullyand accurately done.

Let me repeat about blanching: Have the kettle of blanchingwater boiling vigorously, completely immerse the product inthe boiling water, cover the kettle immediately and begin totime the product. Do not stand with the cover in hand and wait forthe water to come back to the boil, for, of course, it stoppedboiling for a second when you lowered into it the cold product. Ifyou cover the kettle the water will quickly reboil. Do not keepwondering if it is boiling and take off the cover to see. All thesemay seem foolish precautions, but it is necessary to followdirections accurately.

And remember, all things that are scalded or blanched must befollowed immediately by a cold plunge or "cold-dip." The scaldingor blanching is the "hot-dip," and this must be followed by the"cold-dip." You may be asking, what is the point of this"cold-dip"? It is a very logical question.

We "cold-dip" a product to harden the pulp under the skin andthus permit the removal of the skin without injury to the pulp; tocoagulate the coloring matter and make it harder to dissolve duringthe sterilization period and to make it easier to handle theproducts in packing, and to subject the product to a sudden shockby quick change in temperature.

STEPS IN CANNING VEGETABLES

If you will follow these steps for all vegetable canning youcannot help but be successful:

1. Clean jars and test rubbers. If rubbers do not return tonormal shape after stretching, do not use.

2. Prepare material to be canned, according to directions givenon chart.

3. Hot-dip—blanch or scald—the prepared food. Thisprocess consists of immersing the prepared product in boiling waterfor different lengths of time, according to the material to becanned. See chart. Hot-dipping shrinks the product and enables oneto pack more material in a jar.

4. Cold-dip the material. This process consists of plunging theblanched or scalded food into cold water, which makes it moreeasily handled. Be sure the water is cold; the colder thebetter.

Take the product out immediately and let it drain. Don't letany food soak in the cold water.

From this point on, speed is highly important. The blanchedvegetables which are slightly warm must not be allowed to remainout of the jars a moment longer than is necessary.

Remove skins when required, and as each article is pared cut itinto pieces of proper size and

5. Pack directly into the clean, scalded cans or jars. Pack assolidly as possible, being careful not to bruise or mash softproducts. Pack the product to within three-eighths of an inch ofthe top. Lima beans, navy beans, peas, corn, pumpkin and sweetpotatoes swell, so pack them within only one inch of the top of thejar.

6. Add seasoning. One teaspoonful salt to every quart jar ofvegetables, and an equal amount of sugar to tomatoes, corn and peasif desired.

7. Add boiling water to within a quarter inch of top to allvegetables, except tomatoes and greens. Tomatoes containninety-four per cent water, so none should be added. Tomato juicecan be used if desired. Greens are canned in just the water thatclings to the leaves after the cold-dip.

8. Adjust rubber rings and the covers of the jars; partiallyseal.

9. Sterilize—see time-table on pages following.

10. Remove from canner and completely seal. Test for leaks. Cooljars as rapidly as possible, without drafts striking them.

Rapid cooling of the product prevents overcooking, clarifies theliquid and preserves the shape and texture of the product.

SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR VARIOUS VEGETABLES

Greens. No water is added to greens. Ninety percent of greens iswater. They are high in mineral matter and we must preservethat.

Asparagus. Remove string before packing in jar. Can or dry toughends for soup. If asparagus is packed in jars as whole stalks, packwith the tips up.

Tomatoes. Remove skins before packing. Tomatoes may be cannedwhole or in pieces. Skin, cook and strain imperfect tomatoes. Usethis for liquid; as 94 per cent of the tomato is water, no water isneeded.

Eggplants. Make slices about ½ to ¾ of an inchthick. Do not add salt, as it causes eggplants to turn dark.

Pumpkin and squash. If you do not wish to scrape out of theshells you can remove seeds, pare and cut into small blocks ofuniform size. Then blanch.

Sweet corn. Corn expands a little in processing, and for thisreason jars should not be filled quite full. Corn that has reachedthe dough stage before being packed will have a cheesy appearanceafter canning. Corn should never be allowed to remain in thecold-dip water.

Field corn. This product is commonly known as corn-clubbreakfast food. The corn should be selected between the milk andthe dough stage. Wide-mouthed glass jars or tin cans should be usedfor canning this product. Avoid packing container too full, as theproduct swells during the sterilization period. The corn should becanned the same day it is picked from the field if possible. Afterthis product has been sterilized and cooked and stored away it willform a solid, butter-like mass which may be cut into convenientslices for toasting, frying and baking purposes.

Mushrooms. Do not fail to blanch and cold dip. After openingcontainers remove the mushrooms immediately and use them as quicklyas possible.

Sweet peppers. Place the peppers in the oven and bake them untilthe skins separate from the meat. Remove the skin. Pack in hotjars. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to a quart. Add boiling water.

Lima beans. Lima beans can be either blanched or steamed. Ifblanched allow 5 minutes; if in live steam allow 10.

Wax or string beans. Beans can be canned whole or cut intouniform pieces.

Cabbage and cauliflower. Cabbage and cauliflower should besoaked in cold brine (½ lb. salt to 12 quarts water) for onehour before blanching.

Brussels sprouts. Use small solid heads.

Peas. A cloudy or hazy appearance of the liquid indicates thatthe product was roughly handled in blanching and cold dipping, orthat broken peas were not removed before packing.

Carrots and parsnips. Carrots can be packed whole, in slices orin cross-section pieces. Skin of parsnips can be scraped off afterblanching and cold dipping.

Beets. Small beets that run 40 to a quart are the most suitablesize for first-class packs. Well-canned beets will show a slightloss of color when removed from the canner, but will brighten up ina few days.

Turnips. Scrape skin after blanching and cold dipping.

Corn and tomatoes. Add 1 teaspoonful of salt to every quart ofmixture. Mix 2 parts of tomatoes with 1 part corn. One teaspoonfulof sugar improves the flavor.

Corn, tomatoes and string beans. Use 1 part of corn, 1 part ofgreen string beans and 3 parts of tomatoes. Add 1 teaspoonful ofsalt and 1 teaspoonful of sugar to every quart jar.

CHARTS FOR CANNING ALL VEGETABLES AND GREENS

Count from time when water begins to boil (bubbles all over).This time schedule is for both pint and quart jars. Add 30 minutesto time of sterilizing for 2-quart jars.

CHAPTER V

SOUPS

After one has learned how to can fruits and vegetablessuccessfully, the next thing to attempt is the canning ofsoups.

Soups may be canned with or without meat. We make one varietywhich is a pure vegetable soup. We use no stock or meat, and can itin its own juice or liquor, thus using no water.

When we wish to use it we dilute it three or four times andserve it as a vegetable soup or, more frequently, when we havechicken bones or any meat bones on hand, we add a can of thisconcentrated vegetable mixture to the bones and make a deliciousstock soup.

I will give this recipe as I have given it to many friends, allof whom have pronounced it excellent:

• 1 Peck ripe tomatoes
• 1 Head cabbage
• 1 Dozen carrots
• 1 White turnip
• 3 Pounds string beans
• 1 Pound okra
• 3 Red peppers
• 1 Peck spinach
• 2 Pounds asparagus
• 6 Small beets
• 6 Ears sweet corn

Scald the tomatoes by placing them in a wire basket and plungingthem into boiling water for one and a half minutes. Cold-dip themimmediately. After removing the core and stem end of the tomato,the skin slips right off. Save all the tomato juice. Cut thetomatoes into quarters. Put into a large pail or bucket with thejuice. Blanch the cabbage, carrots, turnip, string beans, okra andsweet red peppers five minutes. Cold-dip. Of course you blanch andcold-dip each product separately. Cut each vegetable after it isblanched and cold-dipped into small cubes and add to thetomatoes.

Spinach must be carefully washed to remove all grit and sand.All greens must be washed through several waters to cleanse themthoroughly.

Instead of blanching the spinach in a kettle of boiling water,as we do the other vegetables, we steam it by placing it in acolander over boiling water or in a regulation steamer with tightlyfitting cover, such as is used for steaming suet puddings and brownbread. If you can with a steam-pressure canner or a pressurecooker, then steam the spinach there. If we boiled the spinach forfifteen or twenty minutes we would lose a quantity of the mineralsalts, the very thing we aim to get into our systems when we eatspinach, dandelion greens, Swiss chard and other greens. After theblanching or steaming comes the cold dip.

There is something about blanching asparagus, either for soupsor when canned alone, that is worth knowing. Instead of blanchingthe whole stalk of asparagus for the same length of time, we use alittle discretion, giving the tougher, harder ends a full fourminutes' blanching, but allowing the tender tip ends only twominutes. You are possibly wondering how that is done.

Tie the asparagus stalks in bunches and put the bunches with allthe tips standing one way on a piece of cheesecloth. Tie the clothor snap rubber bands round it, and then stand the asparagus inboiling water in an upright position for two minutes; next lay theasparagus lengthwise in the blanching water for another twominutes, and you have accomplished your purpose. You have given thetougher parts two minutes' more blanching than the tender parts.Use a deep enough kettle so the asparagus will be completelycovered when laid lengthwise. After the blanching, cold-dip theasparagus.

Wash the beets. Leave two inches of the top and all the tail onthe beets while blanching. Blanch for five minutes, then cold-dip.Next scrape off the skin, top and tail. The tops can be put rightinto the soup too. Any surplus tops can be steamed with the spinachand can be treated similarly.

Blanch corn on the cob five minutes. Cold-dip. Cut the corn fromthe cob, cutting from tip to butt end. Add the corn to the othervegetables. Add no water. Pack the mixed vegetables into cleanglass jars; add one level teaspoonful of salt to every jar;partially seal; cook one hour and a half in wash-boiler or otherhomemade outfit. At the end of that period remove jars from canner,seal tight, and the work is done.

Of course you are interested in the cost of this soup. Most ofthe ingredients came right from our garden. We had to buy the okraand the red peppers, but I figured everything just as if I had tobuy it from the market; and on this basis, the cost of our soupwould have been only seven and a half cents a can. We canned it intin, using size Number Two, which is the same as pint size in glassjars.

Another vegetable soup without stock, dried beans and peas beingused, is made as follows:

Soak six pounds of Lima beans and four pounds of dry peas overnight. Boil each thirty minutes. Blanch sixteen pounds of carrots,six pounds of cabbage, three pounds of celery, six pounds ofturnips, four pounds of okra, one pound of onions, and four poundsof parsley for three minutes and dip in cold water quickly. Preparethe vegetables and chop into small cubes. Chop the onions andcelery extra fine. Mix all of them thoroughly and season to taste.Pack in glass jars or tin cans. Fill with boiling water. Partiallyseal glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Process ninety minutes ifusing hot-water-bath outfit or condensed-steam outfit; sixtyminutes if using water-seal outfit or five-pound steam-pressureoutfit; forty-five minutes if using pressure cooker.

In many homes cream of tomato soup is the favorite. To make thissoup the housewife uses a tomato pulp and combines it with milk andseasonings. You can can a large number of jars of this pulp andhave it ready for the cream soup. To make and can this pulp followthese directions:

Tomato Pulp. Place the tomatoes in a wire basket or pieceof cheesecloth and plunge into boiling water for one and a halfminutes. Plunge into cold water. Remove the skins and cores. Placethe tomatoes in a kettle and boil thirty minutes. Pass the tomatopulp through a sieve. Pack in glass jars while hot and add a levelteaspoonful of salt per quart. Partially seal glass jars. Sterilizetwenty minutes if using hot-water-bath outfit or condensed-steamoutfit; eighteen minutes if using water-seal, or five-poundsteam-pressure outfit; fifteen minutes if using pressure-cookeroutfit.

Soup Stock. To make the soup stock which is thefoundation of all the stock soups, use this recipe:

Secure twenty-five pounds of beef hocks, joints and bonescontaining marrow. Strip off the fat and meat and crack bones withhatchet or cleaver. Put the broken bones in a thin cloth sack andplace this in a large kettle containing five gallons of cold water.Simmer—do not boil—for six or seven hours. Do not saltwhile simmering. Skim off all fat. This should make about fivegallons of stock. Pack hot in glass jars, bottles or enameled orlacquered tin cans. Partially seal glass jars. Cap and tip tincans. Sterilize forty minutes if using hot-water-bath outfit orcondensed-steam outfit; thirty minutes if using water-seal orfive-pound steam-pressure outfit; twenty-five minutes if usingpressure-cooker outfit.

Soups made with soup stock are many and varied. One can utilizethe things at hand and change the distinctive flavor from year toyear. I will give you a few good specimen recipes which if followedwill give good results:

Vegetable Soup. Soak a quarter pound dried Lima beans andone pound unpolished rice for twelve hours. Cook a half pound pearlbarley for two hours. Blanch one pound carrots, one pound onions,one medium-size potato and one red pepper for three minutes andcold-dip. Prepare the vegetables and cut into small cubes. Mixthoroughly Lima beans, rice, barley, carrots, onions, potato andred pepper. Fill glass jars or the enameled tin cans three-fourthsfull of the above mixture of vegetables and cereals. Make a smoothpaste of a half pound of wheat flour and blend in five gallons soupstock. Boil three minutes and add four ounces salt. Pour this stockover vegetables and fill cans. Partially seal glass jars. Cap andtip tin cans. Sterilize ninety minutes if using hot-water-bathoutfit or condensed-steam outfit; seventy-five minutes if using awater-seal or five-pound steam-pressure outfit; forty-five minutesif using pressure-cooker outfit.

Cream of Pea Soup. Soak eight pounds of dried peas overnight. Cook until soft. Mash fine. Add the mashed peas to fivegallons of soup stock and bring to boil. Pass the boiling liquidthrough a fine sieve. Make a smooth paste of a half pound flour andadd paste, ten ounces of sugar and three ounces of salt to the soupstock. Cook until soup begins to thicken. Pack in glass jars or tincans. Partially seal glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Processninety minutes if using hot-water-bath outfit or condensed-steamoutfit; eighty minutes if using water-seal outfit; seventy minutesif using five-pound steam-pressure outfit; forty-five minutes ifusing pressure-cooker outfit.

Cream of Potato Soup. Boil one and a half pounds ofpotatoes, sliced thin, and five gallons of soup stock for tenminutes. Add three ounces of salt, a quarter teaspoonful of pepperand a half pound of butter and boil slowly for five minutes. Makethree tablespoonfuls of flour into smooth paste and add to theabove. Cook three minutes and pack in glass jars or tin cans whilehot. Partially seal glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Sterilizeninety minutes if using a hot-water-bath outfit or condensed-steamoutfit; seventy-five minutes if using a water-seal outfit;sixty-five minutes if using a five-pound steam-pressure outfit;forty-five minutes if using a pressure-cooker outfit.

Bean Soup. Soak three pounds of dried beans twelve hoursin cold water. Cut two pounds of ham into quarter-inch cubes andplace in a small sack. Place beans, ham and four gallons of waterin kettle and boil slowly until the beans are very soft. Remove theham and beans from the liquor and mash the beans fine. Return hamand mashed beans to the liquor, add five gallons of soup stock andseasoning, and bring to boil. Pack into jars or cans while hot.Partially seal jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Process two hours ifusing hot-water-bath or condensed-steam outfit; ninety minutes ifusing water-seal outfit; seventy-five minutes if using five-poundsteam-pressure outfit; sixty minutes if using pressure cooker.

Okra Soup. Slice eight pounds okra into thin slices theround way. Blanch ten minutes and cold-dip. Boil one and a halfpounds rice for twenty-five minutes. Mix okra and rice and fillcans or jars half full. To five gallons soup stock add five ouncessalt, a quarter teaspoonful of coriander seed and a quarterteaspoonful of powdered cloves, and bring to boil. Fill remainingportion of jars or cans. Partially seal glass jars. Cap and tip tincans. Process two hours if using hot-water-bath outfit orcondensed-steam outfit; ninety minutes if using water-seal outfit;seventy-five minutes if using five-pound steam-pressure outfit;sixty minutes if using pressure-cooker outfit.

Chicken-Soup Stock. Place thirty pounds chicken in tengallons of cold water and simmer for five hours. Remove meat andbones, then strain. Add sufficient water to make ten gallons ofstock. Fill glass jars or tin cans with hot stock. Partially sealglass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. This stock is used to make soupwhere the term "chicken-soup stock" is used. Process ninety minutesif using hot-water-bath outfit or condensed-steam outfit;seventy-five minutes if using water-seal outfit; sixty minutes ifusing five-pound steam-pressure outfit; forty-five minutes if usingpressure-cooker outfit.

Chicken Broth With Rice. For each gallon of soup stockuse twelve ounces of rice. Boil rice thirty minutes. Fill jars ortin cans two-thirds full of rice and the remainder with soup stock.Partially seal glass jars. Cap and tip tin cans. Process ninetyminutes if using hot-water-bath outfit or condensed-steam outfit;seventy-five minutes if using water-seal outfit; sixty minutes ifusing five-pound steam-pressure outfit; forty-five minutes if usingpressure-cooker outfit.

Chicken Gumbo. Cut two pounds ham into small cubes andboil thirty minutes. Mince three pounds chicken and chop half apound of onions fine. Make a smooth paste of a half pound flour.Add above to five gallons of chicken-soup stock. Then add a halfpound butter and a quarter pound salt and boil ten minutes. Nextadd three ounces powdered okra mixed with one pint water. Pack intoglass jars or tin cans while hot. Partially seal glass jars. Capand tip tin cans. Process ninety minutes if using hot-water-bathoutfit or condensed-steam outfit; seventy-five minutes if usingwater-seal outfit; sixty minutes if using five-pound steam-pressureoutfit; forty-five minutes if using pressure-cooker outfit.

TOMATO ACID CHECKS BACTERIA

Some women who have canned soup tell me it spoiled or tasted"sourish and smelled sourish too." This is what we call "flatsour." It may happen to any vegetable you can, as well as to thesoups. "Flat sour" affects peas, beans, asparagus and corn morethan other vegetables. If the vegetables have been picked for sometime and the bacteria have had a chance "to work," and you are notexceedingly careful about your canning, you may develop "flat sour"in the soup. If you let one little spore of this bacteria surviveall is lost. Its moist growing place is favorable to development,particularly if not much acid is present. One little spore left ina jar will multiply in twenty hours to some twenty millions ofbacteria. This twenty million can stand on the point of a needle,so a can could acquire quite a large population in a short time.Bacteria do not like acids, so it is always a good idea to havetomatoes in your soup mixture, and get the tomatoes into the stonecrock early in the game. The tomato acid will safeguard the othervegetables which lack acid.

If you are careless about the blanching andcold-dipping—that is, not doing these full time—if youwork too slowly in getting the products into jars and then let thefull jars stand in the warm atmosphere, you are pretty sure todevelop "flat sour."

Place each jar in the canner as it is packed. The first jars inwill not be affected by the extra cooking. Have the water justbelow the boiling point as you put in each jar. When you have thecanner full bring the water to the boiling point as quickly aspossible and begin to count cooking or sterilizing time from themoment it does boil.

Some women make the mistake at the end of the cooking period ofletting the jars remain in the boiling water, standing on the falsebottom of the canner until they are cool enough to handle with nodanger of burning the hands. This slow method of cooling not onlytends to create "flat sour," but it is apt to result incloudy-looking jars and in mushy vegetables.

For this reason you should have in your equipment a lifter withwhich you can lift out the hot jars without the hands touchingthem. If you use a rack with wire handles this answers the samepurpose.

This "flat sour," which is not at all dangerous from thestandpoint of health, must not be confused with the botulinusbacteria, which is an entirely different thing.

"Flat sour," perfectly harmless, appears often withinexperienced canners. Botulinus, harmful, appears rarely. You neednot be at all alarmed about eating either "flat sour" or botulinus,because the odor from spoiled goods is so distasteful—itreally resembles rancid cheese—that you would never get aspoon of it to your mouth.

If you are debating whether this jar or that jar of soup orvegetables is spoiled, do not taste the contents of the jar.Smell it. Tasting might poison you if you happened on thebotulinus bacteria, which is so rare it need alarm no one; whereassmelling is perfectly safe.

TIME-TABLE FOR SOUPS

GRAY SOUP WITHOUT STOCK

NUMBER OF MINUTES TO STERILIZE

VEGETABLE SOUP WITHOUT STOCK, USING DRY LEGUMES

NUMBER OF MINUTES TO STERILIZE

SOUP STOCK (Foundation of All Stock Soups)

NUMBER OF MINUTES TO STERILIZE

VEGETABLE SOUP WITH STOCK

NUMBER OF MINUTES TO STERILIZE

CREAM OF PEA SOUP

NUMBER OF MINUTES TO STERILIZE

CREAM OF POTATO SOUP

NUMBER OF MINUTES TO STERILIZE

BEAN SOUP

NUMBER OF MINUTES TO STERILIZE

CHICKEN SOUP STOCK (Foundation of All Chicken Soups)

NUMBER OF MINUTES TO STERILIZE

CHICKEN GUMBO

NUMBER OF MINUTES TO STERILIZE

CHAPTER VI

JELLIES, JAMS, PRESERVES, MARMALADES, FRUIT JUICES ANDSIRUPS

For jelly making select firm, slightly underripe fruit that isfairly acid and contains a large amount of pectin. Fruit that isjust a little underripe contains more pectin than the mature oroverripe fruits. Pectin is the substance that makes jelly harden.This fundamental jelly-making quality does not exist in all fruits.Such fruits as currants, crab apples and grapes contain much pectinand are, therefore, considered excellent jelly-making fruits.

The white inner skin of grapefruit is also a prolific source ofpectin, but as it has a bitter taste we seldom use it for jellies,though we find it valuable in making orange, grapefruit and othermarmalades.

Rhubarb, strawberries and cherries all lack pectin, but can bemade into good jellies if we add the white skins of oranges andlemons to them while cooking.

So the very first thing we must know about jelly making iswhether or not a fruit contains pectin. There will be no tears shedover jelly that will not "jell" if all young housewives will learnthe simple test for pectin; to find out whether a juice containspectin or not is a very easy matter.

Take one tablespoonful of grain alcohol—90 to 95 percent.—and add to it one tablespoonful of cooked juicethat has been cooled. The effect of the alcohol is to bringtogether the pectin in a jelly-like mass. If a large quantity ofpectin is present it will appear in one mass or clot which may begathered up on a spoon. You will notice I said cooked juice.It is peculiar that this pectin frequently is not found in thejuices of raw fruits, though it is very plentiful in the cookedjuices. Therefore the test must be made with cooked juice.

There is little pectin in the juice of raw apples, raw quince,raw grapes, and yet the cooked juices are full of pectin.

This test not only indicates the amount of pectin present, butit also gives some idea of the proper proportions of sugar tojuice. If three-fourths or more of the juice forms a gelatinousmass or clot this indicates that you should use three-fourths asmuch sugar as juice. If the pectin is slightly gelatinous or isless than three-fourths of the whole volume of juice, use lesssugar. If the pectin is less than one-half add some form of pectinto make the jelly, or can the juice for use as a beverage, forflavoring ice cream or some form of cooking.

By employing this test, sugar can often be reduced, and thus thejelly texture will be fine, less rubbery and the flavor will bebetter.

After the fruit has been selected and prepared as usual bywashing, stemming, and so forth, it is ready to be heated in anacid-proof kettle. With juicy fruits use just enough water toprevent burning—about one cup of water to every four or fivequarts of fruit. The juicy fruits are currants, raspberries, and soforth. With less juicy fruits, as apples or quinces, use enoughwater to cover, or follow the rule, half as much water as fruit.Use the cores, skins and seeds; these improve the flavor and colorof the jelly.

Berries can be mashed. Heat the fruit slowly in a coveredkettle, stirring once in a while to obtain an even cooking. Whenthe simmering point is reached, crush the fruit with a well-soakedwooden masher. When the fruit is tender or has a transparentappearance, it is ready to strain.

The jelly bag must be of closely woven material; one with alarge mouth is advisable. If cheesecloth is used double it and tieopposite corners together. When a very clear jelly is desired use aflannel or felt bag for straining the juice.

What drips into the dish or pan is called Extraction One. Whenthis Extraction One is fairly drained out, which takes about thirtyminutes, do not squeeze the pulp for a second grade jelly as somany housewives do; instead, make another juice extraction. To dothis, empty the contents or pulp in the bag into the preservingkettle, cover with water, and stir until thoroughly mixed; thencover, bring slowly to a boil as before and drain again. The juicethat drips out is called Extraction Two.

The pectin-alcohol test can be used here again to find outwhether there is much or little or no pectin left. If much pectinis present, you can repeat the operation and get ExtractionThree.

Three extractions usually exhaust the pectin, but sometimes youcan get as many as five extractions.

You may say, "Why bother with extractions—why not squeezethe juice and be done with it?" You will get clearer,better-flavored and more glasses of jelly if you will make theextractions than if you squeeze the jelly bag.

I always make the jelly from Extraction One by itself, butusually combine Extraction Two and Three.

The next step in jelly making is vitally important—thatis, how much sugar to use to a given amount of fruit juice. This iswhere many housewives "fall down" on jelly making. They use thesame proportion of sugar to all juices.

To make jelly that does not crystallize the right proportion ofsugar must be added to the juice. To make jelly that is not toughor unpleasantly sour, the right proportion of sugar and juice mustbe used.

Currants and unripe or partly ripened grapes are so rich inpectin that they require equal amounts of sugar andjuice—that is, to every cup of extracted currant and grapejuice we add one cup of sugar.

Red raspberries and blackberries require three-fourths of a cupof sugar to every cup of juice. All fruits which require much waterin the cooking take three-fourths of a cup of sugar to every cup ofjuice. Crab apples and cranberries are examples.

It is harder to make jellies from the fruits to which a largeamount of water is added than from the juicy fruits.

I am frequently asked, "When should you add the sugar to thefruit juice in jelly making? Do you add it at the beginning of theboiling, in the middle of the process, or at the end, and shouldthe sugar be hot when added to the juice?" It is better to add thesugar in the middle of the jelly-making process than at thebeginning or the end. Skim the juice well before adding the sugar,so as to lose as little sugar as possible.

If the sugar is hot when added it will not cool the juice, andthus the cooking time will be shortened. To heat the sugar put itin a granite dish, place in the oven, leaving the oven door ajar,and stir occasionally. Be careful not to scorch it.

After the juice is put on, the jelly making should be done asquickly as possible. No simmering should be allowed and no violentboiling. A steady boiling, for as few minutes as possible, willproduce good results.

Currant, blueberry and grape jelly usually can be made in fromeight to ten minutes. The hot sugar is added at the end of four orfive minutes.

Raspberry, blackberry and apple jelly take from twenty to thirtyminutes. The sugar is added at the end of ten or fifteenminutes.

The jellying point is hard to determine. If you have a cookingthermometer or candy thermometer always use it when making jelly.It is the one sure, reliable test.

The temperature for jellies is 221 degrees Fahrenheit. If youwant a very soft jelly, boil it 220 degrees. If you want to use itimmediately, then boil it to 222 degrees.

If you do not have a thermometer the next best test is to pourthe boiling sirup from the side of a clean, hot spoon, heldhorizontally. If the sirup is done two drops will breaksimultaneously from the side of the spoon.

Another test is to take a little jelly on a cold plate and drawa path through it with the point of a spoon; if the path stays andthe juice does not run together, the jellying point has beenreached.

When the jellying point has been reached, remove the kettle fromthe fire, skim the jelly and pour immediately into hot, sterilizedglasses, which have been set on a cloth wrung out of hot water toprevent breaking. Fill the glasses not quite full.

Never attempt to make more than six to eight glasses of jelly atone time. If new at the game make only four, because there isdanger of the juice jellying in the kettle before it can beremoved.

When the jellies are well set cover them with hot, notmerely melted, paraffin. The paraffin if hot will kill any germsthat may fall on the surface of the jelly. Then cover with theclean tin or aluminum covers and store the jelly in a dry, coolplace after proper labeling.

STEPS IN JELLY MAKING

1. Select firm, slightly underripe fruit that is fairly acid andcontains a large amount of pectin.

2. Prepare fruit as usual by washing, stemming, and soforth.

3. Heat slowly in acid-proof kettle until fruit is tender. Mashberries before beginning to cook them. A little water may be addedif necessary to keep from burning. Cut hard fruits into smallpieces; add half as much water as fruit.

4. Pour into dampened bag.

5. Drain through closely woven bag.

6. Make alcohol test for pectin to determine minimum amount ofsugar to use, also the character of the fruit. The amount ofpectin, the fundamental jelly-making property, varies in differentfruits. To make the pectin test add to one tablespoonful of coldcooked fruit juice one tablespoonful of grain alcohol. Shakegently. Allow to stand one-half hour. If three-fourths or more ofthe juice forms a lump add three-fourths as much sugar as juice inmaking jelly. If the precipitate—pectin—is not heldtogether in a lump or is less than three-fourths of the wholevolume of juice, add less sugar in proportion to juice. If lessthan one-half forms a lump, add pectin to make the jelly, or canthe juice for use as a beverage, flavoring, and so forth.

7. If fruit juice meets jelly-making test put on to cook.

8. Add required amount of sugar after juice begins to boil ormidway in the process.

9. Stir until sugar is dissolved.

10. Cook rapidly, but not hard.

11. Test to determine when jelly stage is reached by dipping aclean spoon into boiling juice. Remove and allow juice to drip fromit. If done, two drops will break simultaneously from side ofspoon. Some prefer to wait until mass sheets off from side ofspoon. Better still, use thermometer.

12. Remove from fire and skim.

13. Pour immediately into hot, sterilized glasses.

14. When cool add hot melted paraffin. Melt the paraffin in alittle coffeepot or pitcher with spout, so it will pour easily.

15. Cover, label and store.

No time can be given for jelly making, for several things enterinto consideration: The proportion of pectin in the juice, theamount of water used in cooking the fruit and the proportion ofsugar to juice; the more sugar used, the less time needed.

JAMS AND BUTTERS

Jams and butters are not so difficult to make as jellies.

1. Carefully wash berries and fruits.

2. Weigh the fruit on standard scales or, if scales are notconvenient, use measuring cup.

3. Mash berries. Cut large fruits into several pieces.

4. Add enough water to prevent sticking.

5. Stir to keep from burning.

6. Cook gently until the mass begins to thicken.

7. Measure sugar, using three-fourths part of sugar to one partfruit. That is, for every pound of fruit use three-fourths of apound of sugar, or to every cup of fruit use three-fourths of a cupof sugar.

8. Continue cooking, allowing the jam to simmer gently.

9. Cook the mixture until the desired consistency is reached.When a little of the jam falls in heavy drops from the spoon, it isthick enough.

10. A small amount of mixed ground spices, vinegar orcrystallized ginger can be added if desired.

11. Pour into hot, sterilized glasses to within one-half inch ofthe top.

12. Allow to cool, seal with paraffin, cover, label andstore.

Fruit butters are always softer than jam. Marmalades are mademuch as are jams. The rind is usually used in lemon, orange andgrapefruit marmalades.

Conserves consist of a combination of several fruits. Nuts andraisins are often added to conserves.

Preserves are thick mixtures containing sugar equal to at leastthree-fourths of the weight of the fruit.

If you wish to eliminate the necessity of using paraffin orother wax tops for jellies, jams and preserves, you can use thecold-pack method of canning. You may have containers with screw orbail tops which you wish to use in this way. The following is onerecipe showing how to proceed.

Cherry Preserves. Place one gallon of water in a kettleand add ten pounds of pitted cherries. Boil slowly for eighteenminutes. Add twelve pounds of granulated sugar and cook untilproduct is boiling at a temperature of 219 degrees. Cool quickly inshallow pans. Pack into glass jars. Put rubber and cap in position,not tight. Cap and tip if using enameled tin cans. If using ahot-water-bath outfit, sterilize twenty minutes; if using awater-seal outfit, a five-pound steam-pressure outfit or apressure-cooker outfit, sterilize fifteen minutes. Remove jars.Tighten covers. Invert to cool and test the joints. Wrap jars withpaper to prevent bleaching and store. When using pressure-cookeroutfits on preserves, keep the valve open during period ofsterilization.

Fruit Juices. Fruit juices furnish a healthful anddelicious drink and are readily canned at home. Grapes, raspberriesand other small fruits may be crushed in a fruit press or put in acloth sack, heated for thirty minutes, or until the juice runsfreely, and allowed to drip.

Strain through two thicknesses of cotton flannel to remove thesediment, sweeten slightly, bottle, close by filling the neck ofthe bottle with a thick pad of sterilized cotton, heat to 160degrees, or until air bubbles begin to form on the bottom of thecooker, and keep at this temperature one hour and a half to twohours; or heat to 200 degrees, or until the bubbles begin to riseto the top of the water, and hold at this temperature for thirtyminutes. The hot water comes up to the neck of the bottle. Corkwithout removing the cotton. If canned in jars close the jarpartly, and seal tight after cooking.

Fruit juices should never be heated above 200 degrees, as ahigher temperature injures the flavor.

Strawberry Preserves. 1. Add thirty-five ounces of sugarto one-half pint of water; bring to a boil and skim.

With this amount of sirup the berries can be packed attractivelywithout floating and no sirup will be left over.

To this amount of sirup add exactly two and three-fourths poundsof washed, capped and stemmed strawberries. Boil the fruit until itregisters 222 degrees Fahrenheit on a candy or chemicalthermometer. If no thermometer is available boil until the sirup isvery heavy—about as thick as molasses. Remove the scum.

Fill the sterilized jars full of hot berries. Pour in enough ofthe hot sirup to fill the jar, leaving as little air space aspossible. Put sterilized rings and caps on at once, but do notfasten tightly.

Stand the sealed jars in tepid water up to their necks ifpossible. Bring this water to a boil. Let pint jars stay in theboiling water for at least fifteen minutes and quart jars at leasttwenty-five minutes; then close caps tightly at once. At theconclusion of the operation, stand each jar for a moment on its capto make sure that the seal is absolutely tight.

Recipe Number 2. The following method is preferred bysome because it leaves more of the natural color in thepreserves:

To two pounds of washed, capped and stemmed strawberries addtwenty-six ounces sugar; let stand over-night. In the morning pourjuice thus obtained into a preserving kettle, add berries and cookto 222 degrees Fahrenheit, or until the sirup is very heavy. Packand sterilize, as in Recipe Number 1. These recipes can be used forall other berries.

When wet weather makes strawberries too soft or sandy for thetable, they are still useful for making "strawberry acid," a thicksirup which, mixed with water, ice and perhaps spearmint, makes acooling summer drink.

Strawberries—Sun Preserves. Select firm ripeberries; hull and rinse. Place them in a shallow platter in asingle layer; sprinkle sugar over them. Pour over them a thicksirup made of one quart of water and eleven pounds of sugar, boileduntil very thick.

Cover them with a glass dish or a plain window glass. Allow themto stand in the hot sun eight to twelve hours. Pack them in jellyglasses and cover with paraffin or put in regular glass jars or tincans. Put the rubber and cap in position, not tight. Cap and tip orseal if using enameled tin cans. Sterilize for the length of timegiven below for the particular type of outfit used:

Remove the jars, tighten the covers, invert the jars to cool,and test the joint. Wrap the jars in paper to preventbleaching.

When using steam-pressure or pressure-cooking outfit onpreserves, remember to keep the valve open during thesterilizing.

SPECIAL DIRECTIONS FOR JELLY AND JAM MAKING

Apples vary in the percentage of sugar and acid they contain; afine flavored acid apple should be used when possible. Winterapples are best for jelly making. If necessary to make apple jellyin the spring, add juice of 1 lemon to every pint of applejuice.

Apricots are delicious combined with pineapple.

Blackberries, elderberries and loganberries make deliciousjuices and shrubs for summer beverages.

The total time of making blueberry jelly need not exceed 10minutes.

Cranberries are not always put through a jelly bag, but arerubbed through a sieve.

Cherries are most delicious if preserved in the sun. A goodcombination for preserves is equal parts of cherries andstrawberries.

Crab apples can be combined with some juices, such as peach,pear and pineapple, to furnish necessary pectin.

One-half currants and one-half raspberries make a deliciousjelly; currants are in best condition for jelly making from June 28to July 3.

Black currant jam is considered quite a delicacy these days.

Acid grapes are best for jelly; sweet, ripe grapes contain toomuch sugar. Equal portions ripe and green grapes aresatisfactory.

If gooseberries are fully ripe they make finer-flavored jam thando green-as-grass gooseberries.

Some women are successful in making peach jelly, but be sure totest for pectin before completing the process, to save time andeffort.

Pineapple is best canned alone or used as foundation forconserves.

An underripe, acid plum is best.

Plums and apples combined make an excellent tasting jelly.

Quince parings are often used for jelly, the better part of thefruit being used for preserving.

Raspberries and other berries should not be gathered after arain, for they will have absorbed so much water as to make itdifficult, without excessive boiling, to get the juice to"jell."

Rhubarb is an excellent foundation for the more expensive fruit.It will take the flavor of other fruits and thus we can make anotherwise expensive jam "go a long way."

Strawberries combine well with other fruits and can be utilizedin many ways.

Select sour, smooth-skinned oranges.

Lemon Marmalade. After the 9 oranges and 6 lemons aresliced, put in kettle; add 4 quarts water, cover and let stand 36hours; then boil 2 hours. Add 8 pounds sugar and boil one hourlonger.

Grapefruit used alone is bitter. Oranges or lemons or both areusually combined with grapefruit.

All wild fruits or berries used for jelly making must be freshand not overripe. Barberry jelly is firmer and of better color ifmade from fruit picked before the frost comes, while some of theberries are still green.

CHART FOR JELLY AND JAM MAKING

CHAPTER VII

MEAT

Canned meat adds variety to the diet in the winter-time andmakes a pleasant change from the cured and smoked meats. You putmeat into jars in the raw state and extend the sterilizing periodor you can cook the meat partially or completely and then sterilizefor a shorter period of time. Of course a reliable method ofcanning meat must be used, such as the cold-pack process, where thesterilizing is done in the tin or jar in either boiling water orsteam under pressure. We usually recommend the partial cooking,roasting or boiling of the meat before canning especially forbeginners. If you are a beginner in the business of cold-packcanning then by all means cook the meat before putting it in cans.If you have canned peas, beans and corn successfully for years thenyou are ready for all kinds of raw meat canning.

To save criticism of the cold-pack method of canning meat and toguard against any danger from eating poorly prepared and improperlysterilized meat we do not urge beginners to experiment with meat,although the meat can be safely canned by any one whether new atthe canning game or a veteran in it if directions are carefullyfollowed. But it is the big "If" that we have to watch.

Many farmers and farmerettes are canning meats of all kinds allover the country and there is never a can lost. We need more meatcanning done at home and you can do it if you will practicecleanliness in all your work and follow directions.

The fear of getting botulinus bacteria from eating canned meatis just a "bug-a-boo." It should be clearly understood thatbotulism is one of the very rare maladies. The chances for gettingit by eating canned goods, say the experts, is rather less than thechances from dying of lockjaw every time you scratch your finger.To regard every can as a source of botulism is worse than regardingevery dog as a source of hydrophobia. Moreover, for the very timid,there is the comforting certainty that the exceedingly slightdanger is completely eliminated by re-cooking the canned food for ashort time before eating it.

There are always a few cases of illness traceable to bad food,not only to canned food but to spoiled meats, fish, bad milk,oysters and a number of things. There are also cases of injury anddeath by street accidents, but we do not for that reason stop usingthe streets. If you put good meat into the can and do your canningright then you will have good results. Never put into a can meatthat is about ready to spoil, thinking thereby to "save it."

If you want to be absolutely sure, even if the jar of meat seemsperfectly fresh when it is opened, you can re-cook the meat, thusinsuring yourself against any possibility of botulinus poisoning.So you see, there is nothing at all alarming about that frightfulsounding word "botulinus." Using fresh products, doing the canningproperly and reheating before serving eliminates all danger.

For canning meat, tin cans are in most respects superior toglass, as they eliminate all danger of breakage, preserve the meatjust as well as glass, and by excluding the light prevent anychange of color. If you use glass jars be sure to get the bestbrand of jar rubbers on the market. This is very important.

If, as I have said, you are a beginner—cook the meat firstby frying, roasting, broiling, baking or stewing—just as youwould prepare it for immediate use. The meat is usually seasonedaccording to taste and is cooked until thoroughly heated through,before putting in the cans. Do not cook until tender as that willbe too long with the additional sterilizing. If too tender it willfall apart and be unappetizing although perfectly good. See thatnothing is wasted in the canning. If you are canning a young steeror a calf you would go about it as follows:

Select the meat that you would ordinarily want. Slice the meatwanted for steak. What is not suited for either of these can beused for stews, or be put through the meat grinder and made intosausage meat, formed into little cakes, fried and canned. What meatis left clinging to all bones will be utilized when the bones areboiled for soup stock. The sinews, the head and the feet, afterbeing cleaned may be used for soup stock also.

The liver should be soaked in water, the coarse veins cut outand the liver skinned and prepared any way that is desired beforecanning it or it may be made into liver sausage. The heart can beused for goulash. The kidneys should be soaked in salt water, splitopen and the little sack removed; then they can be either stewed orfried and then canned. The sweetbreads may be prepared in variousways and then canned.

The brain is soaked in water to remove the blood, and themembrane enclosing it is removed. It can be fried or prepared inany favorite way and then canned. The ox tail is used for soup. Thetongue is soaked in water, scrubbed, cleaned, salted, boiled,skinned and packed in cans with some soup stock added.

If you do not care to use the head for soup stock and if itcomes from a young animal, split it open and soak in cold water.Use a brush and scrub thoroughly. Remove the eyes and mucousmembrane of the nostrils and then boil it. After it is boiled,remove all meat and make a mock turtle stew or ragout. Prepare thetripe as for table use and then can.

After the soup stock is made and the bones are cracked for asecond cooking, the bones need not be thrown away. You can drythem, run them through a bone crusher and either feed them to thechickens or use them for fertilizer. In this way not a particle ofthe dressed animal is wasted.

Here are a few ways to utilize the cuts that are really"left-overs."

GOULASH

• 2 Pounds of meat scraps which can consist of beef, veal orpork.
• 2 Ounces of any fat.
• 2 Onions chopped fine.
• 1 Stalk celery, cut in small pieces.
• 2 Carrots.
• 2 Cups tomatoes either canned or fresh.
• 1 Bay leaf.
• 6 Whole cloves.
• 6 Peppercorns.
• 1 Blade mace or a little thyme or both.
• A little flour.
• 1 Tablespoonful chopped parsley.
• Salt and paprika to taste.

Cut the meat into one inch squares and roll in flour. Melt thefat in the frying pan, add the vegetables (onions, celery, carrots)and brown lightly: add the meat and brown. Stir with a spoon orfork to prevent burning. When browned empty into a pan.

Put the bay leaf, cloves, peppercorns, mace and thyme into acheesecloth bag and add to the meat, add tomatoes. Cover with soupstock or water and simmer 45 minutes if it is going to be canned.If for immediate use, 2 hours will be necessary to thoroughly cookit.

Remove the spices, season with salt, paprika and the choppedparsley. You can add Worcestershire sauce or soy sauce if desired.Use only small quantities as these sauces are very strong in theirdistinctive flavor. Put hot mixture into cans and sterilize.

If the different spices are not at hand a good goulash can bemade by using the meat, fat, onions, tomatoes, flour, salt andpepper and omitting the rest of the recipe.

LIVER SAUSAGE

Beef, veal, or hog liver. Remove the membrane and cut away thelarge blood vessels. Soak in water 1 to 2 hours to draw out blood.Boil until done. When cooled put through a food chopper or gratefinely. Take half as much boiled fat pork as liver. Divide this fatinto two portions; chop one portion into one-quarter inch cubes;pass the other portion through the food chopper; mix all togetherthoroughly; add salt, ground cloves, pepper, and a little gratedonion to taste. A little thyme and marjoram may be added to suittaste. (For a liver weighing 1½ pounds add ¾ poundsfat pork, 3 to 4 teaspoonfuls salt, ½ teaspoonful cloves,½ teaspoonful pepper, 1 small onion, ¼ teaspoonfulthyme, and pinch of marjoram.) This mixture is stuffed into largecasings. (If no casings are available, make casings of clean whitemuslin.) Cover with boiling water, bring to a boil, and boil for 10minutes. Pack into cans, fill in with the water in which thesausages were boiled. Sterilize.

This liver sausage may also be made from the raw liver and rawpork, but in that case the sterilizing is for a longer period, asthe time-table indicates. This recipe is recommended by the UnitedStates Department of Agriculture.

HEAD CHEESE

Cut a hog's head into four pieces. Remove the brains, ears,skin, snout and eyes. Cut off the fattest parts for lard. Put thelean and bony parts to soak over night in cold water in order toextract the blood and dirt. When the head is cleaned put it overthe fire to boil, using water enough to cover it. Boil until themeat separates readily from the bones. Then remove it from the fireand pick out all the bones. Drain off the liquor, saving a part ofit for future use. Chop the meat up finely with a chopping knife.Return it to the kettle and pour on enough of the liquor to coverthe meat. Let it boil slowly for fifteen minutes to a half-hour.Season to taste with salt and pepper just before removing it fromthe fire. Bay leaves, a little ground cloves and allspice may beadded and boiled a short time in the soup. Pack while hot in cansto within ½ inch of top. Sterilize. This head cheese isalways served cold.

CORNED BEEF

After beef has been properly corned for three weeks, remove themeat from the brine. Soak for two hours in clear water, changingwater once. Place in a wire basket and boil slowly for half anhour. Remove from the boiling water, plunge into cold water, andremove gristle, bone and excessive fat. Cut into small pieces andpack closely into cans. Add no salt and proceed as in othercanning.

CANNED PORK

After the animal has been killed, cool quickly and keep the porkcool for at least 24 hours. Can only lean portions, using the fatto make lard. Place meat in a wire basket or cheesecloth and boil30 minutes, or roast in the oven for 30 minutes. Cut into smallsections and pack closely into cans. Add salt and proceed withremainder of process.

Other pieces of beef and pork: Hamburg steak, sausage, venison,squirrel, raccoon, opossum, lamb, are canned as follows:

After cleaning, season and fry, roast, stew, or bake in oven asthough preparing for serving directly on the table. Cook until meatis about three fourths done. Pack while hot into sanitary tin cansor glass jars. Pour over the meat the hot liquids, gravies,dressings, etc., or hot water. Add salt and proceed as in any othercold-pack canning.

HOW TO CAN POULTRY AND GAME WITH THE BONES REMOVED

Kill bird and draw immediately; wash carefully and cool; thencut into convenient sections. Boil until the meat can be removedfrom the bones; remove from the boiling liquid and take out allbones; pack closely into glass jars or enameled cans; fill jarswith the hot liquid after it has been concentrated one half; add 1level teaspoonful salt to every quart of meat for seasoning; putrubbers and top of jars in place but not tight. If using enameledcans completely seal. Sterilize the length of time given in thetime-table on page 108 of this book.After the sterilizing remove the jars; tighten the covers if glasswas used; invert to cool and test joints. Wrap with paper toprevent bleaching.

FRIED SPRING CHICKEN

After cleaning and preparing the chickens, season and fry asthough for serving directly on the table. Cook until the meat isabout three-fourths done. If a whole spring chicken, break the neckand both legs and fold around body of chicken. Roll up tight, tie astring around the chicken and drop this hot, partially friedproduct into sanitary tin cans or glass jars. A quart tin can (No.3) will hold two to four small chickens. Pour liquid from thegriddle or frying pan into the can over the chicken. Proceed, as inany other canning, with the sealing, sterilizing and removing ofthe jars. Chicken fries canned in the late fall preserve the meatat the most delicious stage and furthermore we avoid the expense offeeding the chickens throughout the winter.

HOW TO CAN COCKERELS

When cockerels reach the point in their growth where it is nolonger profitable to feed them, and when they are wanted for homeuse during the winter months they should be canned. This method ofhandling the cockerel not only saves money by cutting down the feedbill, but it places in the pantry or cellar the means of adelicious chicken dinner at a time of the year when the price ofpoultry is high.

The bird should not be fed for at least twenty-four hours beforekilling. It should be killed by the approved method and picked dry.When the feathers have been removed and the pin feathers drawn thebird should be cooled rapidly. This rapid cooling after killing isessential to a good flavor in canned meat. As soon as the bird hasbeen properly cooled it should be singed and washed carefully witha brush.

CUTTING UP AND DRAWING CHICKENS

Mr. George Farrell, a most expert canner, tells us how to goabout this job of canning chicken.

In preparing the bird for canning, care should be taken indrawing it so that the contents of the digestive tract do not comein contact with the meat.

1. Remove the tops of the wings, cutting at the first joint.

2. Remove the wings.

3. Remove the foot, cutting at the knee joint.

4. Remove the leg, cutting at the hip or saddle joint.

5. Cut the removed portion of the leg into two parts at thejoint.

6. Place the bird so the back of the head is toward theoperator, cut through the neck bone with a sharp knife but do notcut the windpipe or gullet.

7. With the index finger separate the gullet and windpipe fromthe skin of the neck.

8. Cut through the skin of the neck.

9. With a pointed knife cut through the skin from the upper partof the neck, thus separated, to the wing.

10. Leave the head attached to the gullet and windpipe andloosen these from the neck down as far as the crop.

11. With a sharp pointed knife cut around the shoulder blade,pull it out of position and break it.

12. Find the white spots on the ribs and cut through the ribs onthese white spots.

13. Cut back to the vent; cut around it, and loosen.

14. Begin at the crop and remove the digestive tract from thebird, pulling it back toward the vent.

15. Remove the lungs and kidneys with the point of a knife.

16. Cut off the neck close to the body.

17. Cut through the backbone at the joint or just above thediaphragm.

18. Remove the oil sack.

19. Separate the breast from the backbone by cutting through onthe white spots.

20. Cut the fillet from each side of the breastbone.

21. Cut in sharp at the point of the breastbone, turning theknife and cutting away the wishbone with the meat. Bend in thebones of the breastbone.

PACKING CHICKEN

Use a one quart jar. Caution: Do not pack the giblets with themeat.

1. Have the jar hot.

2. Pack the saddle with a thigh inside.

3. Pack the breastbone with a thigh inside.

4. Pack the backbone and ribs with a leg inside.

5. Pack the legs large end downward, alongside thebreastbone.

6. Pack the wings.

7. Pack the wishbone.

8. Pack the fillets.

9. Pack the neck-bone.

10. Pour on boiling water to within one inch of the top; add alevel teaspoonful of salt; place the rubber and cap in position,partially seal, and sterilize for the length of time given belowfor the particular type of outfit used:

Remove jars; tighten covers; invert to cool, and test joints.Wrap jars with paper to prevent bleaching.

PIGEONS

Young pigeons. Dress pigeons, wash well, and roast for 30minutes basting frequently. Some pieces of fat bacon put over thebreasts will prevent them getting too dry.

Old pigeons. Dress, wash, and fry pigeons.

Brown some onions in the fat with the pigeons, using a pound ofonions to a dozen birds. Cover with hot water after pigeons andonions are a golden brown; simmer until the meat is tender and canbe removed from the bones. Add from time to time boiling water, ifnecessary, in order to keep the birds covered. When tender, takemeat from bones. Return the meat to the liquor, salt to taste andpack while boiling into cans or jars, fill with liquor to withinone-half inch of top.

All small game birds may be canned like pigeons. Blackbirds maybe treated like pigeons. They make an excellent stew.

PLAIN CANNING OF TENDER COTTON-TAILS OR TWICE-SKINNEDJACK-RABBITS

1. Blanch in boiling water until the meat is white.

2. Cold dip.

3. Pack tightly in sterilized jars.

4. Add boiling water and 1 teaspoonful salt to quart.

5. Adjust rubber and lid.

6. Sterilize in hot water bath for three hours.

7. Remove from bath and complete the seal.

Rabbit meat thus canned, may be served in various appetizingways.

RABBIT SAUSAGE

For rabbit sausage and mince-meat only the backs and legs of thecarcass are used, discarding the sinews.

Grind together equal parts of rabbit and fat pork (or at least¼ fat pork). The pork may be salt pork if all salt isomitted from the mixture.

To every ten pounds of the above add 6 teaspoonfuls salt, 1teaspoonful of pepper, 2 teaspoonfuls powdered sage. Mixthoroughly. Shape in flat cakes and fry till nicely browned. Packtightly in jars, pour over the fat in which the sausage was fried,and sterilize.

RABBIT MINCE-MEAT

Rabbit mince-meat is used a great deal on the plains and largequantities of it are canned. The mince-meat may be made by simplysubstituting the rabbit meat for beef in your favorite recipe. Thefollowing is an inexpensive recipe:

• 1 Cup of rabbit meat which has been parboiled in salted waterand drained, then chopped finely.
• 1 Cup chopped apple.
• ½ Cup finely chopped suet.
• ½ Cup seeded raisins.
• ½ Cup currants.
• 1 Cup molasses or syrup.
• 2 Tablespoonfuls sugar.
• 1 Tablespoon cider, lemon juice, fruit juice or vinegar.
• ¼ Cup chopped watermelon pickles or green tomatopickles.
• 1 Teaspoon of cinnamon or nutmeg.
• 1 Teaspoon of salt.
• ½ Teaspoon cloves, mace or other spice.

Mix together all ingredients except the meat, add the meat brothand simmer for about 1 hour. Add the meat. Pour into jars, andsterilize. Remove and seal.

STEPS IN CANNING MEAT AND GAME

For all meat, poultry or game canning the following generalinstructions should be kept in mind.

1. Sterilize the jars, caps and rubbers.

2. Grade the meat for size.

3. Cut up into convenient portions for cooking or canning.

4. Sauté, fry or bake, broil or stew as desired. Thisstep can be omitted if you are an experienced canner.

5. Pack in sterilized, hot jars or tin cans.

6. Add 1 level teaspoonful salt per quart of meat for seasoningif not already seasoned.

7. If glass jars put on rubber and seal, not too tight. Seal tincans.

8. Process in boiling water or steam under pressure.

9. Remove, completely seal the jar.

10. Invert to cool and test the joint.

11. Label and store.

If you can in tin use the enamel or lacquered cans. A slightamount of water in the bottom of the jars of prepared meat willinsure quicker sterilization of the air remaining in the jar. Wheremeat has been stewed the liquor can be poured into the jar forfilling. If you use a steam-pressure cooker outfit of course thetime of cooking will be much shorter than if you use a wash-boileror some other homemade outfit. If you cook in boiling water we callthat the water-bath method.

The following data will be of interest to those who contemplatecanning meat.

Hog on foot—weight 500.

Liver, heart and a part of the ribs were eaten at the time ofbutchering, therefore, not canned. The remainder of the ribs cannedsix No. 3 cans:

The sausage weighed 52 lbs. before it was canned, making 2 lbs.to the can.

There were 200 lbs. of fat for lard. After it was rendered therewere 176 lbs. of lard and 20 lbs. of cracklings.

TIME-TABLE FOR CANNING MEAT, POULTRY AND GAME

NOTE.—This time-table is for No. 2 and No. 3 tin cans orpint and quart glass jars. If larger cans or jars are used moretime must be allowed for the sterilizing. If canning in tin,scratch on the can at the time of sealing the initial of thecontents. For instance—S.R. means spareribs; G. meansgoulash; R.B. means roast beef. You can make out your list and markaccordingly.

CHAPTER VIII

FISH

People in some sections of the country are interested in canningmountain trout and others live where there is an abundant supply ofeither fresh-water fish or salt-water fish. Heretofore we have beenwasteful and lax about the fish supply. But as we have learned tocan vegetables and meats so we are going to learn to can fish. Fishis really canned the same in every step after preparation as peasand corn are canned.

In order to have a good product, fish must be fresh when canned.No time should be lost in handling the fish after being caught.Putrefaction starts rapidly, and the fish must be handled promptly.The sooner it is canned after being taken from lake, stream orocean, the better. Never attempt to can any fish that is stale.

PREPARATION OF FISH FOR CANNING

As soon as fish are caught it is advisable to kill them with aknife and allow the blood to run out. Scale fish. This is easilydone if the fish is dipped in boiling water. For canning, mostvarieties of fish need not be skinned. If the fish is very largeand coarse, the large back fin may be cut out and the backboneremoved, but with most varieties this is unnecessary. Cut off thehead and tail, being careful to leave no more meat than necessaryon the parts removed. Remove the entrails and the dark membranethat in some fish (e.g., mullets) covers the abdominal cavity.Thoroughly clean the inside. The head may be cleaned and used forfish chowder.

If you wish to be sure that all blood is drawn out beforecanning, place the fish in a brine made of one ounce of salt to onequart of water. Allow the fish to soak from 10 minutes to 1 houraccording to the thickness of the fish. Never use this brine butonce. If the meat of the fish is very soft or loose, it may behardened by soaking in a brine (strong enough to float an Irishpotato) for from 15 minutes to an hour, depending on the thicknessof the pieces and the softness of the flesh.

CANNING THE FISH

1. Remove the fish from the brine where it has been placed inorder to draw out all the blood and to harden the texture of thefish.

2. Drain well.

3. Cut into can lengths.

4. Place fish in a piece of cheesecloth or in a wire basket andblanch in boiling water from three to five minutes. Threeminutes for the soft flesh fish, such as suckers, crappies,whitefish. Fish with a firmer flesh, as pike, muskalonge andsunfish require 5 minutes blanching. The blanching removes thestrong fish flavor and cleans the outside of the fish.

5. Cold-dip the fish by plunging into cold water immediately.This makes the flesh firm.

6. Pack in hot jars or cans to within ½ inch from top.Add 1 teaspoonful salt per quart. Put on a good rubber andpartially seal the jar, completely seal tin cans.

7. Place jars or cans in canner and process in boilingwater for three hours. Three hours sterilization will insure thekeeping of all varieties of fish, providing fresh products are usedand the blanching and other work is carefully done. If canning witha steam-pressure canner or a pressure cooker sterilize for one hourand a half under 10 to 15 lbs. pressure.

8. At the end of the sterilizing period cool the jars quicklyafter sealing completely. The tin cans may be cooled by immersingthem in cold water.

9. Store for future use.

SOFTENING OF BONES IN FISH

This can be done satisfactorily under pressure. The bones offish are composed of large quantities of harmless lime, bound by amatrix of collagen, which is insoluble under ordinary conditions.When subjected to a high temperature under pressure this collagenis converted into gelatin and dissolved, leaving the bones soft andfriable and even edible. Bony fish, such as herring and shad, whichare too small to use otherwise are greatly improved when subjectedto steam under pressure.

The bones in herring are softened in 37 minutes at a temperatureof 240 degrees; shad in 1 hour; flounder 1 hour. Other fish arefully cooked and the bones softened in times approximatelyproportionate to the size of the bones.

The following table was made after many experiments and givesthe time required to soften the bones in many common species offish.

The term "softening" means the point in cooking when the smallbones, ribs, etc., are soft, but when the large vertebrae are notyet sufficiently soft to be consumed along with the meat. In someof the larger fishes where the large bones could scarcely be eaten,even if they were softened, it would appear to be a waste of timeand fuel to carry them to a point of complete cooking, and in suchcases it ought to be sufficient to soften the small bones andsterilize the contents of the can. For such a purpose, the"softening" rather than the "soft" point, may be used.

The time periods are measured from the point when the givenpressure and temperature are reached (at the top of the cooker) tothe time when the heat is shut off. The heating-up and cooling-offperiod of time are therefore not included. The fish were salted,but no water was added.

Samples of fish canned during the course of these experimentswere kept six weeks at room temperature (about 68° F.) and werethen incubated at 98° F. for 48 hrs. All were sterile.

FRIED FISH

1. Clean the fish and remove entrails. Split along the back andremove backbone.

2. Place in brine strong enough to float an Irish potato. Allowfish to remain in this brine from 10 minutes to 1 hour according tothe thickness of the flesh. This draws out the blood and hardensthe meat.

3. Draw, wipe dry.

4. Cut in pieces that can go through jar or can openings.

5. Roll in cornmeal or other flour, dip into beaten egg and rollin flour again.

6. Then put into frying basket and fry in deep fat until nicelybrowned, or it can be sautéd in bacon or other fat untilwell browned.

7. Drain well by placing pieces on coarse paper to absorbexcessive fat.

8. Pack into hot jars or enameled tin cans.

9. Add 1 teaspoonful salt per quart. Add no liquid.

10. Partially seal glass jars. Completely seal tin cans.

11. Process 3 hours in hot water bath outfit. Process 1½hours in steam pressure (10 to 15 lbs. pressure).

12. Remove from canner. Seal glass jars. Cool quickly aspossible.

BAKED FISH

Prepare and bake fish same as for table use until half done.Pack in hot jars, add salt and sterilize three hours inhot-water-bath outfit or 1½ hours in steam pressure orpressure cooker, 10 to 15 lbs. pressure.

ANOTHER FORMULA FOR MISCELLANEOUS FISH

Rub the fish inside and out with a mixture made as follows: to50 pounds fish, mix 2½ pounds salt, 2½ pounds brownsugar and 2½ ounces saltpeter. Let the fish stand in a coolplace for 48 to 60 hours with the mixture on, then wash and drain.Fill into glass jars or enamel lined tin cans and add the followingsauce until cans are nearly filled: ¼ pound whole blackpepper, 1½ pounds salt, 1 pound of onions chopped fine,½ ounce bay leaves, ¼ pound whole cloves, 2 quartscider vinegar and 25 quarts of water. Soak the pepper, cloves andbay leaves for 48 hours in the vinegar. Put the water, salt andonions in a kettle. Bring to a boil and cook 30 minutes, then addthe vinegar and spices. Let boil for one minute. Strain and it isready for use.

Sterilize for 3 hours in hot-water-bath outfit.

Sterilize for 1½ hours in steam pressure or pressurecooker (10 to 15 lbs. pressure).

CANNED FISH IN OIL

Rub fish with salt, brown sugar and saltpeter as above directed.Wash and dry thoroughly in the sun. Spread on wire screens and dipin oil heated to a temperature of 300 degrees. Use a strap handleplunge thermometer to determine heat of oil. Cottonseed oil may beused for this purpose, although olive oil is best. As soon as thefish are cool enough to handle, pack tightly in cans, filling upwith the hot oil.

Sterilize 3 hours in hot-water-bath-outfit; 1½ hours insteam pressure or pressure cooker (10 to 15 lbs.).

CANNED FISH IN TOMATO SAUCE

Handle same as specified under "Another Formula forMiscellaneous Fish," except pour in the following sauce instead ofpepper, cloves, onions, etc.: Ten gallons of tomato pulp (mashedtomatoes and juice with cores, seeds and skins removed); 1 galloncider vinegar, 1 pint Worcestershire sauce; 2½ pounds redsweet peppers; 2½ pounds sugar, 2 cups salt, 2 pounds onions(chopped fine); 1 pound West India peppers and 1 ounce Saigoncinnamon. The fish are processed same as "Fish in Oil." Enamellined cans or glass jars must be used.

FISH CHOWDER

The cleaned heads of any fish, the backbones cut out of largefish with what meat adheres to them and all other fish scraps maybe used for fish chowder. Put all these parts in cold water (tocover) and cook until all the meat can be easily removed from thebones. Pick all the meat from the bones, strain the fish liquor andreturn it with the picked fish meat to the kettle. Add thefollowing ingredients: To every two pounds of fish picked frombones and the liquor in which fish was cooked add 6 onions, dicedor sliced thin; 6 potatoes, diced or sliced thin; 2 tablespoonfulsfat; 1 teaspoonful paprika; 2 teaspoonfuls salt or salt totaste.

Cook vegetables, fat and seasonings until vegetables are halfdone. Pack hot in cans and sterilize same as all other fish. Whenthe chowder is opened, heat and add milk according to taste.

FISH ROE

For canning be sure to use roe of freshly caught fish and onlysuch roe as is known to be good to eat. The roe of some fishes,such as the garfish, is not eaten.

Clean the roe by removing the shreds and strings adhering to itand wash well in cold water, being careful not to break the roe.Soak for 2 hours in a brine made of 6 quarts of water and 6 ouncesof salt. Drain and pack in hot glass jars or enameled tin cans. Canfor the same length of time as other fish.

OYSTERS

Be sure all oysters that are to be canned are absolutely fresh,have not "soured" and contain no spoiled oysters. Oysters areopened by hand. All oysters should be rejected that have partlyopen shells, as this is a sign that the oyster is dead andconsequently not fit to eat.

Rinse the oysters to prevent any pieces of shell or grit fromgetting into the cans. Blanch 5 minutes. Cold-dip. If the cannedoysters are to be sold it is required by law to mark on each canthe net weight of solids or meat exclusive of liquids.

There have been a number of standard grades of oystersrecognized on the Baltimore market. They are given as follows:"Standard Oysters" (four kinds).

No. 1 cans, containing respectively 1½, 3, 4 and 5 ouncesof meat, after being processed in the cans.

No. 2 cans, containing respectively 3, 6, 8 and 10 ounces ofmeat.

"Select" and "Extra Select" Oysters contain respectively 6ounces and 12 ounces for No. 1 and No. 2 cans. The above are thenet weights of meats only that have been drained over a strainerwith a wire bottom of ½ inch mesh. These are the only gradesthat have so far been recognized by the trade. An even balancescale, with one platform for graduated weights and another forarticles to be weighed, is used to weigh oysters or clams. It issuggested that those who are going to can clams or oysters find outfrom their prospective customers just what requirements are as toweights and then make their pack meet the occasion. Under nocircumstances is it advisable to make any misstatements or misbrandin any respect.

After oysters have been packed in the can, fill with boilingbrine made of 5 quarts of water to ¼ lb. salt to within½ inch from top of can. Sterilize as other fish.

CLAMS

If clams are received in a muddy condition, it is advisable,though not necessary to wash them before opening. After opening,discard broken or discolored clams. Do not can any clams unlessabsolutely fresh. Blanch. Cold-dip. Weigh out the amount of solidmeat, after draining, that is to go into each can. Weigh and labeljust as oysters are weighed and labeled.

Fill can to within ½ inch from the top with boiling brinemade of 5 gallons of water and 1 pound of salt. Sterilize.

CLAM BROTH AND CHOWDER

Place the clams, after being opened, in a kettle with enoughcold water to cover. Add a few stalks of celery. Boil for 10minutes. Season with salt, and pepper to taste and add 1 tablespoonbutter to every 50 or 60 large clams. Can. Clam chowder can be madeaccording to any recipe and then canned.

SHRIMPS

Shrimps when first caught are a grayish white color. They arevery delicate and spoil quickly if allowed to stand for any lengthof time in a warm place. There are two general methods of canningshrimp—the "dry pack" and "wet pack." Nearly all the tradenow calls for "wet pack" because the other always has a ratheroffensive odor and the meat is never so fresh and sweet of flavoras the "wet pack." Canned shrimp is very pleasing to the taste andis preferred by many to lobster for salads and stews.

Wet Pack. Medium sizes are preferable as very largeshrimps are apt to be too tough and too dry. Put the shrimps into awire scalding basket and lower into a boiling hot salt watersolution made by mixing one pound of salt to each gallon of water.Allow the shrimps to remain in this bath for about five minutes,then remove and drain thoroughly.

Peel and remove viscera (entrails). The boiling and the saltwill harden the meat and make the peeling comparatively easy. Packinto enameled tin cans or glass jars. Nos. 1 and 1½ cans areused almost exclusively. These sizes should contain 4½ ozand 9 ounces of meat respectively. It is unsafe to put in more meatthan above directed, for it might cake and become solid whenprocessed.

Add a very mild brine to within ½ inch from top of can.For the brine use 1 teaspoonful salt to 1 quart of boiling water.Sterilize.

Dry Pack. Handle same as above, except do not pour intothe cans any brine. The fish is packed in the cans and processed asfollows without the addition of any liquor.

Drying of Shrimps. After shrimps are boiled and peeledthey may be dried. Spread on a drier of any kind and dry at atemperature of from 110°F. to 150°F. When thoroughly drypack in dry clean glass jars or in parchment-paper lined boxes.

SALMON

Scale fish, clean and wipe dry. Do not wash. If the fish arelarge cut in lengths to fill the cans and in sizes to pass throughcan openings easily. Salmon is usually packed in No. 1 cans or inflat cans. Fill cans with fish after it has been blanched 5 minutesand cold dipped. Sterilize as other fish.

Many salmon packers lacquer the outside of their cans to preventrusting. This is a very advisable point. The test for unsoundsalmon is the nose. If the contents issue an offensive odor, it isunsound. Freezing does not hurt canned salmon.

AMERICAN OR DOMESTIC SARDINES

The fish taught and used for packing domestic sardines belong tothe herring family and are said to be of the same species as thesardines of France, Portugal and Spain. There are two methodsgenerally used in canning sardines. First, when the fish are put ina sauce such as mustard dressing or tomato sauce, and secondlywhere they are packed in oil.

CANNING SARDINES IN SAUCE

The heads are cut off, the scales taken off and the fishcleaned. Blanch 5 minutes; cold dip; drain and pack into the cansdry. Cover with sauce, either mustard or tomato.

SARDINES IN OIL

The fish are prepared in the same manner as above described butinstead of blanching them, they are put in wire baskets andimmersed in boiling peanut or cottonseed oil until tender. Oliveoil might be used, but is rather expensive. When cooked, they aredrained, packed into cans in order, and the cans filled with oliveoil. It is often advisable to salt the fish while fresh and beforecooking as it improves the flavor.

CRAB MEAT

Put 5 gallons of water in a large kettle. Add ¼ lb. ofbaking soda to it. When boiling vigorously throw the live crabs init and boil quickly for 20 minutes. Remove crabs and wash them incold water. Pick out all meat. Wash the meat in a brine made of 1ounce of salt dissolved in three quarts of water. Drain and pack inenameled No. 1 flat cans. Sterilize. As soon as the time ofsterilizing is up, plunge the cans immediately into cold water,otherwise crab meat discolors. For this reason, glass jars are notso well adapted to crab meat canning as tin cans.

FLAKED CODFISH

The fish are first cleaned and the entrails removed, then thefins are cut off. The fish are then soaked for about two hours in asalt brine to remove the blood. This brine is made with about 10lbs. of salt to 8 gallons of water. The brine is then rinsed offand the fish are cooked, either boiled or cooked by steam. Whencodfish are thoroughly cooked, the meat will drop off of the bonein pieces, and it is very white in color and crisp in texture.These pieces are then broken in suitable sizes and are ready toplace in the cans. The cans are filled as full as possible, becauseafter processing the fish will shrink some.

CRAWFISH

The best way to can crawfish is to put it up in a bouillon asfollows: Water, 2 gallons; vinegar, 1 quart; cloves, 10; carrots inslices, 6; onions in slices, 6; cloves of garlic, 3.

To the above should be added a good quantity of pepper to suitthe taste, a little salt and bunch of parsley and a little thyme.Boil slowly for about an hour. Throw in the crawfish after theintestines have been extracted; to do this take the live crawfishin your hand and tear off the wing which is in the middle of thetail; it will pull out at the same time a little black intestinewhich is very bitter. Boil one or two minutes, never longer, put incans and process.

TIME-TABLE FOR BLANCHING AND STERILIZING FISH

CHAPTER IX

EASY METHODS OF CANNING IN TIN

If the proper sanitary requirements are provided andinstructions of the cold-pack method of canning are followed, it isentirely safe and practical to use tin cans for all kinds offruits, vegetables and other food products. Foodpoisoning—commonly called ptomaine poisoning—and theeffects ascribed to "salts of tin" result from improper handlingand improper preparation of the product before packing, or fromallowing the product to stand in the tin after it has been opened.The raw food products used for canning in tin must be in soundcondition, just as they must be if put into glass containers.

It is true that canned foods may be rendered unfit for use byimproper handling of the product before packing and thatdecomposition may occur after canning, owing to insufficientprocessing, improper sealing or the use of leaky containers. Thiscondition, however, is no more likely to be encountered in foodsput up in tin than in products canned in other types of containers.You run no more danger of poison from your own tin-canned productsthan from tin-canned food bought at the store. Most canned foods ifin a spoiled condition readily show this condition by the swellingof the can or by odor or taste. Canned foods showing such evidencesof decomposition should not be used.

Certain foods which are high in protein, such as meats, peas,beans and fish products, may undergo decomposition without makingthis condition obvious to the senses. It is essential, therefore,that the greatest care be taken to subject such products to properpreparation and ample processing. It should be remembered thatcanned foods, after opening the containers, should be treated asperishable products and should be handled with the same precautionsthat are applied when fresh products are being used.

ADVANTAGES OF CANS

Many housewives ask, "Why can in tin when we have always usedglass jars?" There are many advantages in canning in tin which wecan well consider. There is no breakage as in glass; you can handlethe tin cans as carelessly as you choose and you will not hear asnap or crack indicating a lost jar. Furthermore, tin cans areeasier to handle not only in canning but in storing.

The expense each year of new tin covers or new tin cans is nomore than the purchase of new rubbers and the replacement of brokenglass jars. Furthermore, one big advantage of tin over glass isthat tin cans can be cooled quickly by plunging them into coldwater immediately upon removal from the canner, and thus thecooking is stopped at the proper moment. The product isconsequently better in form and flavor than when the cooking isprolonged, as it must be in glass jars. Many women like the largeopenings of cans because they can make better packs than when usingnarrow-necked jars.

If you do not care to bother with the soldering you can purchasea safe and simple device that will do the work for you. This deviceis called a tin-can sealer. With a sealer no soldering isnecessary. Even an inexperienced person, by following directionscarefully, can seal a can as well as an experienced one. The sealedcans look exactly like those purchased at the store. Two or threecans a minute can be sealed with this device.

This is the way to operate a can sealer: Prepare the fruits andvegetables as for any canning, following directions formerly givenfor cold-pack canning.

After the fruits or vegetables have been properly prepared,blanched and cold-dipped if necessary, place them in sanitary,solderless cans. Put water or sirup on, according to directions.Put the top on the can and place the can in the sealer.

Raise the can into the chunk by swinging the raising lever atthe bottom of the machine against the frame. Turn the crank,rapidly at first, with the right hand, and at the same time pushthe seaming-roll lever very slowly with the left hand until it willgo no farther. This is one of the most important steps in the useof the machine. Continue to give the crank several turns after theseaming-roll lever has gone as far as it will go. This completesthe first operation or seam.

Continue turning the crank with the right hand, and with theleft hand pull the seaming-roll lever until it will go no fartherin this direction. After this has been done give the crank severalmore turns, and the second and final operation is complete. Bringthe seaming-roll lever back to the middle position and remove thecan. The can is then ready for sterilization.

Before sealing a new lot of cans or after changing for adifferent size of can, one or two of the cans about to be usedshould be tested for leaks. If this is done and the cans stand thetest it will be unnecessary to test the remaining cans of that samelot. The following is a simple and safe test:

Put one tablespoon of water into an empty can and seal. Have onhand a vessel containing enough boiling water to cover the can. Setaside and, as soon as bubbles disappear from the surface, immersethe can in the hot water. This heats the water in the can andcreates a pressure within the can. Keep the can under the surfacefor two minutes, and if by that time no bubbles rise from the canthe can has been sealed air-tight.

ADJUSTING THE SEAMING ROLLS

If bubbles rise from the can the seam is not sufficiently tight.If this seam is not sufficiently tight the second seamingroll needs adjusting, provided the directions regarding seamingrolls given below have been observed. To set the rolls proceed asfollows: Loosen the nut on the bottom of the seaming-roll pin. Witha screw driver turn the seaming-roll pin counterclockwise—that is, from right to left. Turn very slightlyand, while holding the seaming-roll pin with the screw driver inthe left hand, tighten nut with the right hand, and test asbefore.

Occasionally it is well to compare the seam after the firstoperation with the sample can which is sent with the machine.

If seaming rolls cut into the can they are set too close, andthe seaming-roll pin should be adjusted in the opposite directionfrom above.

After adjusting, always test cans as suggested above beforecanning. The seaming rolls are set before the machine leaves thefactory and should not require adjusting for some time, but I havefound that slight variations in cans may make adjustingnecessary.

If for any reason the second seaming roll is brought intocontact with the can before the first operation is complete it mayinjure the can seriously, thus preventing an air-tight seam.

If the first seaming roll is forced in too rapidly it may ruinthe seam. Push the seaming-roll lever gently and steadily, whileturning the crank with the right hand. This rolls the seamgradually. There is no danger from bringing in the second seamingroll too quickly if the first seaming roll has completed itswork.

There are thus, as you see, two kinds of tin cans used in homecanning: The sanitary or rim-seal can, which is used with a sealer,and the cap-and-hole can. The latter consists of a can, and a coverwhich carries a rim of solder and is fastened on the can by theapplication of heat.

The sanitary can has a cover a trifle larger than the diameterof the can, thus leaving the full diameter of the can open forfilling. That part of the cover that comes into contact with thecan is coated with a compound or fitted with a paper gasket or ringwhich makes a perfect seal when the cover is crimped on the can.Some mechanical device is necessary for sealing this can, and thisis the sealer.

Cans may be had with inside enamel or plain without any enamel.The following fruits and vegetables should be canned inenamel-lined cans: All berry fruits, cherries, plums, rhubarb,pumpkin, beets and squash. All highly colored products should becanned in enamel-lined cans to prevent the bleaching effect inducedby their action upon the plain tin. Some prefer to can fish andmeat in the enamel-lined cans. Other products not mentioned heremay be canned in plain cans, since they are less expensive than theenamel-lined cans.

Covers are lined in two ways, with the paper gasket and thecompound gasket. The compound gasket is merely a preparation,scarcely visible, applied to the under side of the cover and is noteasily damaged by handling. The paper gasket is a ring placed onthe under side of the cover and must be handled carefully. If thepaper gasket becomes broken the cover must be discarded. Tosterilize covers having the paper gasket, place them in the ovenfor a few minutes, but do not wet them, before sealing cans.Do not remove or handle paper gaskets.

When the cans are removed from the cooker the ends should beraised; this is caused by the pressure within. If they are notraised at the ends the cans should be carefully examined fordefects. After the cans are sterilized they should be cooled off inwater. This will cause the ends to collapse. If they do notcollapse the reason is probably due to overfilling. It must beremembered that peas, beans and corn swell a certain amount afterwater is placed in the cans; therefore, in canning these vegetablesthe cans should be filled only to within a quarter of an inch ofthe top. If the pressure of the air from without will not cause theend to collapse, it should be forced in by hand.

THE TINNING OUTFIT

Tin-can sealers are made to handle the regular Number 2, or pintcans, and the Number 3, or quart cans. The sizes areinterchangeable, so that in a few minutes' time a Number 2 machinemay be changed into a Number 3 machine with the necessaryattachments. So it is economy to buy a machine with theseattachments, as you can then use either pints or quarts as youdesire.

If you are selling to boarding houses and hotels you also willwant half-gallon and gallon cans. If you use these larger-size cansand want the sealer you can get it for these sizes, but you musttell exactly what you want when ordering.

The prices which I give are 1919 prices and are of course notstationary. A sealer that will seal the Number 2 sanitary tin canscosts $14. A sealer for Number 3 cans will cost the same amount.But the ideal arrangement is the combination machine which can beused for both the pints, Number 2, and the quarts, Number 3. Thistype of sealer costs $16.50. A special machine is used for sealingthe Number 10 or gallon cans, and its price is $35.

The price of the "winter can opener" is $17.00 for smaller sizeand $19.50 for the larger one.

Several standard sizes of tin cans are in common use for canningpurposes, as follows:

The cans are put up in crates holding 100 or 500 cans. If youare canning for the ordinary market use Number 2 cans for berries,corn, peas and cherries; Number 3 cans for tomatoes, peaches,apples, pears and sweet potatoes.

In buying cans it is always necessary to state whether youdesire plain tin or lacquered—enameled—cans. In buyingcaps always ask for the solder-hemmed caps and give the diameter ofthe can opening. For whole fruits and vegetables, cans withtwo-and-seven-sixteenth-inch or even larger openings arepreferable. Since the size of the can opening varies and itordinarily will not be advisable to have more than one cappingiron, it is recommended that the largersize—two-and-seven-sixteenth-inch—capping iron bepurchased.

The tin cans come in lots of 100 or 500 cans. It is possible tobuy as few as two dozen cans, but that never pays. It is cheaper tobuy a larger quantity. Number 2 plain sanitary cans in 500 lotscost $3.45 a hundred; in 100 lots, $3.65 a hundred. Number 2sanitary cans—enameled—in 500 lots cost $3.80 ahundred; in 100 lots, $3.95 a hundred. Number 3, plain, in 500 lotsare $4.50 a hundred; Number 3, plain, in 100 lots are $4.70 ahundred. Number 3, enameled cans, in 500 lots, are $4.95 a hundred;Number 3, enameled cans, in 100 lots, are $5.10 a hundred.

The gallons come twelve cans to a case. They are $1.40 a dozenif 100 cases are bought. If less than 100 cases are ordered theyare $1.50 a dozen.

The cans that you have to solder yourself run just about thesame price, Number 2 being $3.60 in 500 lots and $3.80 in 100 lots.Number 3 are $4.70 in 500 lots and $4.90 in 100 lots. The buyermust pay express or freight charges on both sealers and tincans.

PREPARING OLD CANS FOR REFILLING

Formerly, after using a tin can once we threw it away; but menwith brains, realizing this waste, have come to our rescue, and asa consequence we can now use a can three times—that is, if wehave a sealer. The sealer that seals our cans will also open themfor us, so it becomes our winter can opener. With this can openerwe can use our tin cans three times, buying each year only newtops, which cost less than good rubbers.

Cutting and Reflanging Tin Cans. Cutting off the can thefirst time. First lift the spring pin in the top piece, push thelever from you, drop the spring pin between the stop of the firstoperation roll and the cutting-roll stop. Place the can in thesealer, push the can-raising lever against opposite side of frame.Turn the crank and gently push seaming-roll handle from you untilyou come against cutting-roll stop, and the top of your can is cutoff.

Reflanging. Remove standard can base and in its place putin the reflanging base, lift the spring-pin and bring seaming-rolllever to the original position. Drop the spring pin between thestops of the first and second operation rollers, place the can inthe sealer, open end down, push raising lever round until the canengages with the chuck, turn the crank and at the same timegradually push raising lever round against the frame. The can isnow ready for use again.

Resealing. The can is now three-sixteenths of an inchshorter than originally. Remove the reflanging base, put one of thenarrow washers on the top of the can-raising lever, then thestandard can base, and the sealer is now ready. Proceed as with theoriginal can.

Cutting the Can the Second Time. Proceed as at the firsttime, only be sure to cut off the opposite end. The can may be cutopen and reflanged only twice, once on each end of the can body. Incutting and reflanging the second time, leave thethree-sixteenth-inch washer under the can base and reflangingbase.

Resealing the Second Time. Remove reflanging base and putthe second three-sixteenth-inch washer under the standard can baseand proceed as directed under resealing.

The soldering equipment required includes a capping iron, atipping copper, soldering flux, a small brush, a porcelain, glassor stoneware cup in which to keep the soldering flux: sal ammoniac,a few scraps of zinc, solder, a soft brick and a file.

Soldering Flux. Soldering flux is a solution of zinc incrude muriatic acid. It is used for cleaning the irons and forbrushing the tins and lead surfaces so as to make it possible forthe melted lead to adhere to the tin.

To Make the Flux. Purchase at the drug store ten cents'worth of crude muriatic acid. Place this in a porcelain, stone orglass jar. Add as much zinc in small pieces as the acid willthoroughly dissolve. The flux is always best when it has stood fromtwelve to sixteen hours before using. Strain through a piece ofcloth or muslin. Dilute with a little water, about half and half.This will make the soldering flux. When using keep the flux wellmixed and free from dust and dirt.

Tinning Capping Iron. Purchase five or ten cents worth ofsal ammoniac at the drug store; clean iron with file or knife. Mixa little solder with the sal ammoniac. Heat the capping iron hotenough so that it will melt the solder and convert it into aliquid. Place the iron in the vessel containing the mixture of salammoniac and solder. Rotate iron in the mixture until the solderingedge of the iron has become bright or thoroughly covered with thesolder. All particles of smudge, burned material, and so forth,should be removed from the iron before tinning.

Tinning the Tipping Copper. The tipping copper is tinnedin very much the same way as the iron. Sometimes it is desirable tofile the tipping copper a bit so as to make it smooth and tocorrect the point. Heat the copper and rotate the tip of it in themixture of sal ammoniac and lead until it has been covered with themelted lead and is bright as silver. The copper should be filednearly to a sharp point.

Capping a Tin Can. Use one tin can for experimenting. Bycapping and tipping, heating the cap, and throwing it off andsimply putting another cap on the same can, you can use this onecan until you become proficient in capping.

When capping the full packs arrange the cans in rows upon thetable while the capping and tipping irons are heating in the fire.Take a handful of solder-hemmed caps and place them on all cansready to be capped. Place a finger on the vent hole, hold cap inplace, and run the brush containing a small amount of flux evenlyround the solder-hemmed cap with one stroke of the hand. Do thiswith all cans ready to be capped. Then take the capping iron fromthe fire. Insert in center the upright steel. Hold the capping ironabove the cap until the center rod touches the cap and holds it inplace. Then bring it down in contact with all four points ofsolder-hemmed cap and rotate back and forth about three strokes. Donot bear down on capping iron. A forward and back stroke of thiskind, if properly applied, will perfectly solder the cap in place.Remove capping iron and inspect the joint.

If any pin-holes are found recap or repair with copper. It maybe necessary to use a piece of wire lead or waste lead rim from acap to add more lead to the broken or pinhole places of a cap.

Tipping a Tin Can. Take flux jar and brush. Dip brushlightly in flux and strike the vent hole a side stroke, lightly,with brush saturated with flux.

Use the waste solder-hemmed cap rim or wire solder. Place pointof wire solder over vent hole. Place upon this the point of thehot, bright, tipping copper. Press down with a rotary motion.Remove quickly. A little practice will not only make this easy, buta smooth, perfect joint and filling will be the result. The cansare now ready for the canner. The handwork is all over, for thecanner will do the rest.

Precautions. Do not fill tin cans too full. Leave aone-eighth to one-quarter inch space at the top of the can and seethat the product does not touch the cover. If any of the producttouches the cover the application of the hot iron produces steam,which may blow out the solder, making it impossible to seal thecan.

RULES FOR STERILIZING

Remember all fruits and vegetables are prepared for tin cansexactly as they are for glass jars and the period of cooking orsterilizing is the same. The following rules will help to avoiddifficulties in the operation of the various canning outfits:

For hot-water-bath outfits, whether homemade or commercial.

1. Support the cans off the bottom sufficiently to permit thecirculation of water under and round the cans.

2. Have the water cover the tops of the cans by at least oneinch. The heat and pressure must be equal on all parts of thecans.

3. Count time as soon as the water begins to jump over theentire surface. Keep it jumping.

4. On removing the cans throw them into a sink with running coldwater or plunge them into a pail of cold water.

5. If the cans are laid on their sides the false bottom is notnecessary.

For steam-pressure and pressure-cooker canners the followingprecautions should be observed:

1. Lower the inside crate until it rests on the bottom of thesteam-pressure canners. In the case of the pressure cooker put therack in the bottom of the cooker.

2. Have the water come to, but not above, the platform.

3. Tin cans can be piled one above the other.

4. When the canner has been filled fasten the opposite clampsmoderately tight. When this has been done tighten each clampfully.

5. Have the canner absolutely steam-tight.

6. Allow the pet cock to remain open until live steam blows fromit.

7. Close the pet cock.

8. After the gauge registers the correct amount of pressure,begin counting the time.

9. Maintain a uniform pressure throughout the process.

10. When the process is completed allow the steam to escapegradually through the pet cock. You can lift the pet cock slowly,using a pencil or a knife. This can be done only with tin cans. Ifglass jars are used the canner must be cooled before opening thepet cock. Blowing the steam from the pet cock is likely to cause aloss of liquid from the partly sealed glass jars.

11. Throw the tin cans into cold water.

12. If tin cans bulge at both ends after they have beencompletely cooled, it indicates that they are spoiling anddeveloping gas, due to bacteria spores or chemical action. Thesemay be saved if opened at once and resealed or resoldered andprocessed again for ten minutes.

The following table will help you in estimating how many cans offruit and vegetables you will obtain from a bushel of product:

NUMBER OF CANS A BUSHEL FILLS

CHAPTER X

INTERMITTENT CANNING OR FRACTIONAL STERILIZATION

In some parts of the United States, particularly in the South,such vegetables as corn, beans, peas, squash, spinach, pumpkin,etc., are canned by what is known as the fractional sterilization,or the so-called Three Days Process.

Southern canning experts have had trouble with certainvegetables, such as those named, when they canned these vegetablesin the wash boiler by the cold-pack or one period method. They saythat the climatic conditions are so different in the South thatwhat is possible in the North is not possible in the South.

The vegetables are prepared, blanched, cold-dipped and packed asin the cold-pack method and the filled cans or jars are processedin the wash boiler or other homemade outfit a given length of timethree successive days.

After each day's processing the cans should be cooled quicklyand set aside, until the next day.

The method is as follows:

Process or sterilize glass jars for the required number ofminutes on the first day, remove from canner, push springs downtightly as you remove the jar from the canner.

On the second day raise the springs, place the jar in thecanner, process or boil for the same length of time as on the firstday. Remove from the canner and seal tightly. Set aside until thethird day, when the process should be repeated.

For this canning a good spring-top jar is good, although theMason jar type of top will serve for one year; after one year ofuse it is advisable to fit old Mason jars and similar types withnew tops.

If using the screw-top jars, such as the Mason, do not disturbthe seal at the second and third processing unless the rubber hasblown out.

This method is only necessary when depending upon boiling wateror condensed steam to do the work.

A steam-pressure canner or pressure cooker is used in the Southand many other places to avoid bothering with vegetables threesuccessive days.

The steam canner or pressure cooker soon pays for itself intime, energy, and fuel saved as the vegetables may be canned athigh pressure in one processing.

The following time-tables are those used in the South and willtell you exactly how long to blanch and process all products. Thepreparation of vegetables and fruits is the same as in theone-period method, but the time of blanching and sterilizingdiffers as the time-table indicates.

TIME-TABLE FOR PRODUCTS IN GLASS

(Hot-Water Canner)

[1] Brine is made of 2½ ounces (⅓ cup) of salt to 1gallon of water.

To make sirups recommended, boil sugar and watertogether in proportions given below:

• Sirup No. 1, use 14 ounces to 1 gallon water.
• Sirup No. 2, use 1 pound 14 ounces to 1 gallon water.
• Sirup No. 3, use 3 pounds 9 ounces to 1 gallon water.
• One pint sugar is one pound.

TIME-TABLE FOR PRODUCTS IN GLASS

The following vegetables should be processed the same length oftime on each of three successive days:

[1] Brine is made of 2½ ounces (⅓ cup) of salt to 1gallon of water.

TIME-TABLE FOR PRODUCTS IN TIN

(Hot-Water Canner)

[1] Brine is made of 2½ ounces (⅓ cup) of salt to 1gallon of water.

To make sirup recommended, boil sugar and water together inproportions given below.

• Sirup No. 1, use 14 ounces to 1 gallon water.
• Sirup No. 2, use 1 pound 14 ounces to 1 gallon water.
• Sirup No. 3, use 3 pounds 9 ounces to 1 gallon water.
• Sirup No. 4, use 5 pounds 8 ounces to 1 gallon water.
• Sirup No. 5, use 6 pounds 13 ounces to 1 gallon water.
• One pint sugar is one pound.

TIME-TABLE FOR PRODUCTS IN TIN

The following vegetables should be processed the same length oftime on each of three successive days:

[1] Brine is made of 2½ ounces (⅓ cup) of salt to 1gallon of water.

You will notice in the time-table for tin, that there is acolumn for "Exhausting." After the can is packed and capped it isplaced in the canner of boiling water to within 1 inch of the topof the can where it remains the number of minutes, usually three,indicated on the time-table. This is done to force the air from thecan through the little hole left open in the top, and is calledexhausting. Cans that are not exhausted frequently bulge afterprocessing and are looked upon with suspicion. Cans exhausted toolong frequently cave in at the sides. The time-table should be usedcarefully and followed strictly in this part of the process. Tincans do not require exhausting in the Northern and Westernstates.

TIME-TABLE FOR CANNING VEGETABLES STEAM PRESSURE

Corn, lima beans and peas should never be packed in largercontainer than No. 2. Corn is cut from cob after blanching.

The brine used is made of 2½ ounces salt to 1 gallon ofwater, except for asparagus, which contains 4 ounces to 1gallon.

Beets and rhubarb when packed in tin must be put in enamel-linedcans.

Process pints as for No. 2 cans; quarts as for No. 3 cans,adding 10 minutes to each period.

String beans when more mature should be processed at 15 poundspressure for 30 minutes for No. 2, and 45 minutes for No. 3.

CHAPTER XI

WHY CANNED GOODS SPOIL

Every day brings letters to my desk saying, "Why did my jars ofvegetables lose water?" or, "When I looked into my canner I saw allthe beautiful dark sirup in the bottom of the canner instead of inthe jars," or, "What shall I do, my beets are all white?" etc.,etc. In this chapter I am going to try and tell you a few thingsyou must and must not do. A few "Do's" and "Don'ts" may help you alittle in your canning and food preserving.

I want to say right here that if you have failures do not blamethe method as we are always so apt to do. Experts have worked longenough, carefully and thoroughly enough, to convince themselves andothers that the cold-pack method and the intermittent method, whichmethods are employed for cooking the product in the jar, are sure,safe, reliable and efficient methods. So if your food spoilsconvince yourself it is not the method but something else. Spoilageis due to imperfect jars, imperfect rubbers, imperfect sealing oftin cans, careless blanching, insufficient cold dipping or poorsterilizing.

CAN-RUBBERS

Possibly your canning troubles are all due to using a poor gradeof rubber rings. This is poor economy. Rubbers are apt to give moretrouble than anything else to canners when using glass jars. Manyof the rubbers sold are of a very poor quality, disintegratingquickly when subjected to heat and strain. My sister, canning inthe hot climate of India, has more trouble with the rubberproposition than anything else.

You want good rubbers, are willing to pay for them, and here iswhat you should know about rubber rings.

The one-period, cold-pack method and the intermittent method ofhome canning require a rubber ring essentially different from thatcommonly used in the old hot-pack method of home canning.Investigation shows that many of the rings upon the market areunsuitable for these newer methods, being unable to withstand thelong periods of boiling required in the canning of vegetables andmeats.

Practical canning tests have indicated that rubber rings for usein this method should meet the following requirements:

Inside Diameter. The ring should fit closely, requiring alittle stretching to get it around the neck of the jar. Forstandard jars the ring should have an inside diameter of 2¼inches.

Width of Ring and Flange. The width of the ring or flangemay vary from one-fourth of an inch to twelve thirty-seconds of aninch. Tests which have been made show that fewer cases of"blow-out" occur when the flange is ten thirty-seconds of aninch.

Thickness. Rubber rings as found on the market may varyfrom 1/18 to 1/10 of an inch in thickness. Tests show that 1/12 ofan inch in thickness is sufficient to take up the unevenness in thejar and still not so thick as to make it difficult to place the capor adjust the bail.

Cold-pack and intermittent-canning require a rubber ring that istough, does not enlarge perceptibly when heated in water or steam,and is not forced out of position between the top and the jar byslight pressure within the jar. This we call a "blow-out."

Rubber rings should be capable of withstanding four hours ofsterilization in boiling water without blowing out on partiallysealed jars, or one hour under ten pounds of steam pressure. Theyshould be selected with reference to proper inside diameter, widthof flange, and thickness. Good rubber will stretch considerably andreturn promptly to place without changing the inside diameter. Theyshould also be reasonably firm and able to stand without breakage.Color is given to rings by adding coloring matter during themanufacturing process. The color of the ring is no index to itsusefulness in home canning. Red, white, black or gray may beused.

Always use new can-rubbers with each year's product ofcanned goods. An old rubber may look like a new one but it has lostits elasticity and its use may cause imperfect sealing and thusendanger the keeping quality of the food. This is always a hardthing to impress upon thrifty penny-saving housekeepers. The oldrubber looks so good, so why not use it? But be wise in this andremember it is never safe to use old rubbers. New rubbersare expensive but what about the cost of the product, the loss ofyour time and fuel! One jar lost due to an old rubber is so muchfood, time and fuel lost.

And do not think yourself thrifty to use two old rubber ringsinstead of one, thereby thinking to obtain a better seal, for youwill not. Two old rubbers are inferior in strength to one new goodrubber. If you use old rubbers and your canned goods spoil, blamethe rubbers.

GLASS JARS

Next in importance to the rubbers are the glass jars you use.There are many kinds of fruit jars on the market. The question isfrequently asked, "Which jars on the market are the best." The onlyanswer to that is to choose the jar which is simplest inconstruction, which will seal perfectly and wash easily, whichprotects the contained food against contact with metal, which hasthe fewest parts to lose or misplace and which fits the shelves andreceptacles planned to hold it.

FLAT SOUR

Flat-sour often causes annoyance to beginners in canning somevegetables, such as corn, peas, beans and asparagus. These cannedfoods may show no signs of spoilage and yet when the can is openedthe product may have a sour taste and a disagreeable odor. This"flat-sour" is not harmful and must not be confused with"botulinus," which is harmful. However, the taste and odor are sodisagreeable you will have no desire to eat "flat-sour" cannedgoods.

This trouble can be avoided if you will use fresh products, thatis, those which have not been allowed to wilt or stand around theshops for several days, and will blanch, cold-dip, and pack one jarof product at a time, and place each jar in the canner as it ispacked. The first jars in will not be affected by the extracooking. When the steam-pressure canner is used the jars or cansmay be placed in the retort and the cover placed into position butnot clamped down until the retort is filled.

TROUBLES WITH CORN

Corn seems to give the most trouble, but with a little care andstudy this product may be canned as easily as any other grown inthe garden. A little experience in selecting the ears and abilityto recognize corn that is just between the milk and dough stage isimportant. Blanch not longer than five minutes. A plunge in coldwater is sufficient. Cut the corn from the cob with a sharp knifeand pack at once in sterilized jars. Best results can beaccomplished when two people cut and one person fills. If it isnecessary for one person to work alone, cut off sufficient corn tofill one jar, pour on boiling water, add salt, place rubberand cap in position and put the jar at once in the canner. A littleovercooking does not injure the quality of canned corn. Corn shouldnot be tightly packed in the jar; it expands a little in processingand for this reason each jar should be filled scant full. Corn thathas a cheesy appearance after canning had reached the dough stagebefore being packed. Corn should never be allowed to remain in thecold dip and large quantities should not be dipped at one timeunless sufficient help is available to handle the productquickly.

Some to be absolutely sure when canning corn, cook it for tenminutes in hot water before packing into jars.

Leave fully one inch of space at the top when packing corn butenough water may be poured into the jar to fill the can or jar, forwhen the corn swells the water will be absorbed.

Corn Turning Dark. A dark color in canned corn is due tosome of the following causes:

1. Using water that contains too much iron.

2. Using corn that has reached the dough stage.

3. Blanching for too long a period—five minutes issufficient for corn.

Water-Logged or Soaked Corn. When canned corn becomes"water-logged" or "soaked" it is due to such causes as thefollowing:

1. Allowing the product to stand in the cold water too longafter the hot dip.

2. Allowing the jars to stand after they have been packed, andfilled with boiling water. The jars should be immediately placed inthe sterilizer after being packed.

3. Allowing ears of corn to stand in cold water afteropening.

4. Heating corn in warm water over a slow fire.

BEETS, THEIR LOSS OF COLOR

The loss of color in canned beets is due to faulty methods ofpreparation before packing them into the jars. To secure goodresults 3 or 4 inches of the top and all of the tail should be lefton while blanching. Beets should be blanched for five minutes andthe skin should be scraped but not peeled. Beets should be packedwhole if possible.

Small beets that run forty to a quart are less likely to fadeand are the most suitable size for first-class packs. The older thebeets the more chance there is for loss of color. Well-canned beetswill show a slight loss of color when removed from the canner, butwill brighten up in a few days.

CLOUDY PEAS

The condition of peas known as "cloudy" is due to such causes asthe following:

1. Cracking the skin of the pea.

2. Blanching for too long a period.

3. Use of water which is too hard or has too much mineralcontent.

SHRINKAGE OF PRODUCT DURING CANNING

Shrinkage may be due to one or more of the following:

1. Improper blanching and cold-dipping.

2. Careless packing and using variety of sizes.

3. Sterilizing for too long a period.

4. Lack of sizing whole products for the container.

Sometimes there is a natural shrinkage that cannot be prevented.This is due to the fact that vegetables contain air in theirtissues and when this air is driven off by the heat, the boilingwater in the jar rushes in to fill its place. In consequence wehave an apparent shrinkage in the amount of water. So be careful todo the blanching as correctly as possible to drive out the air;however, the product will keep just as well in a jar half full ofwater as if entirely covered with liquid. The contents of the jarwhether food or air are sterile.

SHRINKAGE OF GREENS

Shrinkage of greens or pot herbs during the canning process isusually due to insufficient blanching. The proper way to blanch allgreens or pot herbs is in a steamer or in a vessel improvised to dothe blanching in live steam above the water line. If this is notdone much of the mineral salts and volatile oil contents will beextracted by the water and lost.

LOSS OF LIQUID DURING CANNING

A loss of liquid in canning with a hot-water-bath outfit may becaused by one or more of the following:

1. Not having the water in the sterilizing vat cover the tops ofthe jars by at least one inch.

2. Not providing a suitable platform to hold the jars off thebottom of the sterilizing vat, permitting circulation of waterunder as well as around the jars.

3. Not having the wire bail that goes over the glass tops ofjars sufficiently tight.

REASONS WHY JUICES ARE DRAWN FROM JARS WHEN CANNING WITHSTEAM PRESSURE

1. Open pet cock after pointer or gauge has reached zero; testfor pressure by opening pet cock slowly at first. The gauge doesnot register pressure until about one pound of pressure has formed,hence opening the pet cock before the pointer is at zero means thatfrom one to two pounds of pressure is being relieved and this willdraw the juices the same as allowing the boiler to stand and avacuum to form.

2. Allowing the pressure to fluctuate during the time ofsterilizing, such as running the pressure up to fifteen, back toseven or eight and then up again.

3. Wire bails can be and should be a little tighter when jarsare put in a steam pressure canner. The clamp should be left up asstated.

4. There may be an escape of steam around the seal of the boilerand this would allow the pressure on the inside of the boiler tofluctuate.

Any one of those four things will always cause loss ofjuice.

OPERATION OF HOT-WATER-BATH OUTFIT

These four rules will help in the operation of thehot-water-bath canning outfit: Example, wash boiler.

1. Support the jars off the bottom sufficiently to permit thecirculation of water under and around the jars.

2. Have the water cover the tops of the jars by at least oneinch. The heat and pressure must be equal on all parts of thejars.

3. Count time as soon as the water begins to jump overthe entire surface. Keep it jumping.

4. Remove jars from the water and tighten the covers as soon asthe time is up.

Rapid cooling of the products prevents overcooking, clarifiesthe liquid and preserves the shape and texture.

Operation of steamers or "double-deckers" as they are sometimescalled. These have a small amount of water in a pan below two racksand the products cook in steam instead of boiling water.

1. Have water boiling in pan when products are put in.

2. Use same time-table as for hot-water bath or wash boiler.

3. Remove jars from steam at the end of the sterilizing period.Do not allow them to "cool off" in the steamer.

The operation of a water-seal canner is very simple.

1. Jars put on racks and lowered in water as in wash-boiler butdue to an extra jacket the temperature is higher than boilingwater.

2. Follow time-table under water-seal.

OPERATION OF STEAM PRESSURE AND PRESSURE COOKERCANNER

1. Place each jar in the canner as soon as it is packed.

2. Have water come up to but not above the platform.

3. Have canner absolutely steam tight.

4. When canner has been filled fasten opposite clamps moderatelytight. When this has been done tighten each clamp fully.

5. Allow pet cock to remain open until live steam blows fromit.

6. Close pet cock.

7. Force pressure to the required point before countingtime.

8. Maintain a uniform pressure during the sterilizingperiod.

9. Allow canner to cool before opening pet cock.

10. Have pet cock completely closed during the cooling.

11. Open pet cock before vacuum forms. This is evidenced by arush of air into the canner when the pet cock is open. You can testthis by placing the finger over the end of the pet cock. If avacuum forms it will draw the flesh of the finger into theopening.

12. Remove jars from canner and tighten lids as soon as canneris opened.

BREAKAGE OF JARS

When breakage of jars occurs it is due to such causes asthese:

1. Overpacking jars. Corn, pumpkin and sweet potatoes swell orexpand in processing. Do not quite fill jars with theseproducts.

2. Placing cold jars in hot water or vice versa. As soon as jarsare filled with hot sirup or hot water, place immediately in thecanner.

3. Having the wire bail of glass top jars too tight.

4. In steam canner, having too much water in the canner. Thewater should not come above the tray.

5. Cold draft striking the jars when they are removed from thecanner.

6. Wire spring too tight, thus breaking jar when contentsexpand.

MOLD ON CANNED PRODUCTS

Mold may result from one or more of the following:

1. Leaky rubbers or defective joints.

2. Removing tops from the jars at the end of sterilizing periodand substituting new rubbers, without returning the jars to thecanning outfit for at least a few minutes.

3. If the jars are kept in a damp cellar where the rubbers maydecompose, mold may enter through these decomposed rubbers.

ACIDITY OF TOMATOES AFTER CANNING

Too great a degree of acidity in canned tomatoes may be due toclimatic conditions or overripe or underripe product. Such aciditycan be corrected by adding ¼ teaspoonful of baking soda toone quart of tomatoes.

WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR HOME CANNING

The hardening of beans, peas and some other products aftercooking or processing, or the turning of green vegetables to a darkor russet color usually indicates that the water contains too higha percentage of mineral matter. Water used for canning purposesshould be pure, soft if possible or as free from objectionable andexcessive qualities of mineral matter as possible. If you are tocan any large quantity of food products and have difficulty withthe water available, it would be well for you to have the wateranalyzed and for you to secure the advice of some one at yourcollege of agriculture.

TOO MUCH SALT IN CANNED GOODS INJURIOUS TO QUALITY

Most vegetables as well as meats are injured in quality by anexcessive use of salt for seasoning in the canning process. Alittle salt is very palatable and its use should be encouraged butit is better to add no salt in canning than to use too much, as itcan be added to suit the taste when served.

ALTITUDE AND ITS EFFECT ON CANNING

Remember that practically all instructions on home canning arebased upon a time schedule for sterilization from sea level to analtitude of 500 feet above sea level. When canning at an altitudeof more than 500 feet above sea level, it will be necessary to useyour judgment in the increase of time for sterilizing on the basisof 20 per cent for each 4,000 feet.

Blanching means boiling, not hot. In different directionsfor canning we often find "hot" water mentioned when boiling wateris intended. Water should be boiling at a gallop whenvegetables are blanched—berries and soft fruits are notusually blanched, though some are scalded to loosen the skin.

BERRIES OR FRUIT RISING TO THE TOP

Some women are disturbed because berries and fruits have atendency to always rise to the top of the jar leaving a sirup spacein the bottom. To prevent this you can scald all berries and fruitswhich are not ordinarily scalded, for one minute and then cold-dipthem. They will be softened some, but remain firm, and can bepacked very closely in a jar. They can be packed so closely thatonly a little sirup can be added. When a jar thus packed comes fromthe sterilizer the berries or fruit are not floating as they wouldbe if they were not scalded.

Another method employed to prevent berries from floating is toput the hot sterilized jar on its side while cooling and to roll itfrequently during the cooling period. The berries are then evenlydistributed through the sirup.

In canning mushrooms in tin, always use lacquered cans. Do notfail to blanch and cold dip before packing, and remove themushrooms immediately after opening the tin cans.

In canning cabbage and other similar products always soak theproduct in cold brine for one hour before sterilizing. Use ½pound salt to 12 quarts water. This is believed to improve theflavor. Always wash greens or other vegetables, to remove all dirtand grit.

TROUBLES WITH TIN CANS

To discover pin-holes or any leaks in a tin can, immerse it inboiling water after sealing and if there is any bubbling from thecan, you may rest assured it needs resealing.

Swells in tin cans are caused by insufficient sterilization. Theaction of bacteria causes gas to form in the can and as a resultthere is a bulging at either end. If left alone long enough thecans will explode. Watch carefully all bulging cans and use themfirst. Sometimes a slight bulge occurs when a can has been filledtoo full.

If you have trouble sealing tin cans the chances are that thecan is too full. See that no particle of food touches the top orwhen soldering, if you employ that method of sealing, small pinholes will be blown in the seal by escaping steam which isgenerated by the hot sealer coming in contact with the cold food.Another cause of sealing trouble lies sometimes in a poorly heatedcapping steel or because it is not kept brightly tinned. To make aproper seal the steel must be kept bright, hot and clean.

Also, be sure you buy good solder as there are inferior gradesthat are too poor to flow when properly heated.

FROZEN PRODUCTS

Watch all jars and cans that have been subjected to a freeze. Ifthe cans or jars do not burst the only harm done is a slightsoftening of the food tissues. In glass jars after freezing thereis sometimes a small crack left which will admit air andconsequently bacteria.

Sometimes cans and jars tip over in the wash boiler duringsterilizing. This is caused by using a false-bottom which is toolow or because it is not well perforated. Or it may be due to thefact that the jar was not well packed and so may be too light inweight.

CHAPTER XII

GETTING READY TO DRY

For various reasons women have not taken so kindly to dryingfruits and vegetables as they have to canning these foods.

One woman said to me: "I like the canning because I can come toa demonstration and see the whole process carried through fromstart to finish. The drying of strawberries cannot be completed insixteen minutes as the canning is." And another woman said: "What Ido not like about drying is having the stuff standing round thehouse somewhere for so many hours. I like to get things in the jarsand out of sight."

These two objections seem to be expressed more than any other.And in addition there is a third objection to drying: "I want myprepared food ready to use on a minute's notice. I can quickly opena can of my fruit and vegetables and there it is ready. With mydried things I have to allow time for soaking and cooking." This wewill have to admit is true. But what weight have these threearguments against the many advantages of drying?

When we study the history of food preservation we find thatdrying was practiced before canning, pickling or preserving. I knowmy grandmother successfully dried quantities of things.

Vegetable and fruit drying have been little practiced for ageneration or more, though there have been some thriftyhousekeepers who have clung to their dried corn, peas, beans andapples. A friend of mine says: "Why, dried corn has a much better,sweeter taste than your canned stuff. I would rather have onelittle dish of my delicious dried corn than two big dishes of yourcanned corn."

Drying, I think we will all admit, does not and cannot take theplace of canning fruits and vegetables in glass or tin. Drying andcanning are twin sisters, and always go hand in hand.

The ideal arrangement for all homes, whether on the farm, in thevillage, in the town or in the city, is to have an ample supply ofcanned food for emergencies and quick service, and an equally amplesupply of dried foods when meals are planned beforehand and thereis time enough for the soaking and cooking of the dried foods.

THE ADVANTAGES OF DRYING

When we come right down to facts, drying has many advantagesover canning.

The process is very simple, as you will see. The cost is slight.In almost every home the necessary equipment, in its simplest form,is already at hand. There is no expense for glass jars or tin cans,and with ordinary care there is no loss of products, as there maybe in handling glass jars or from spoilage. The actual workrequires less time and less skill than canning and the driedproducts when properly prepared are just as good as the cannedones—some say better.

One special thing in favor of drying is the little storage spaceneeded. You can often reduce 100 pounds of fresh product to tenpounds by drying, without any loss of food value and with littleloss of flavor.

Dried products can be moved more conveniently than glass jars ortin cans, for they are usually reduced to from one-third toone-fifth of the original bulk.

Another valuable thing about drying is that the little odds andends one would scarcely bother to can may be dried in the oven asyou go about your housework.

I have often been asked the difference between the meaning ofthe terms "evaporated," "dried," "desiccated" and "dehydrated."These terms are used more or less interchangeably when applied tofoods from which the moisture has been removed. In a general way,however, "evaporated" products are those from which the moisturehas been removed through the agency of artificial heat; dried fruitis that which has been exposed to the heat of the sun, though notinfrequently the term is applied to products handled in theevaporator. The other terms are commonly applied to products thathave been evaporated by one of the various patented processes inwhich equipment of some special design has been used.

To avoid any confusion we will use the general term "dried" forall products that have enough of the water removed to preventbacterial action, but which still retain the maximum food value,color and flavor of the original product. And that is what we wantto accomplish when we attempt to dry.

How are we to remove the water and still retain food value,color and flavor? There are three principal methods by which we cando this. First, by artificial heat. Drying by artificial heat isdone in the oven or on top of a cookstove or range, in trayssuspended on the stove or in a specially constructed dryer built athome or purchased.

Second, by the sun. Sun drying is done either out of doors inthe sun, under glass in sun parlors, or the products are hung inthe attic where the sun has free access.

Third, satisfactory drying may be done by an air blast from anelectric fan.

Of course any one of these may be used alone or two differentmethods may be combined. You can start a product on the stove andfinish it in the sun, or vice versa.

The simplest and yet the most effective drying may be done onplates or dishes placed in the oven. It may be done on the back ofthe kitchen stove with these same utensils while the oven is beingused for baking. In this way left-overs and other bits of food maybe dried with slight trouble while the stove is being used, andsaved for winter use. This method is especially effective for sweetcorn. A few sweet potatoes, apples or peas, or even a singleturnip, may be dried and saved.

To keep the heat from being too great, when drying in the ovenleave the oven door partly open. For oven use, a simple tray may bemade of galvanized-wire screen of convenient size, with the edgesbent up for an inch or two on each side. At each corner this trayshould have a leg an inch or two in length to hold it up from thebottom of the oven and permit circulation of air round theproduct.

Oven drying in a gas range is an effective method if thetemperature is kept even. An oven thermometer is a greatconvenience, otherwise the temperature will have to be carefullywatched and the burners turned as low as possible. It is economy inthe end to purchase an oven thermometer, for then you can have thetemperature just right. It is best to start the temperature at 110degrees Fahrenheit and dry at 130 degrees. Never go over 150degrees.

If you wish to dry in the oven over the kerosene stove, placesoapstones over each burner to prevent the heat from becoming toointense. Turn the burners very low until the stones are thoroughlyheated. You can turn off the burners completely after the desiredtemperature is reached and it will be maintained from the heat ofthe stones for five or six hours. If more time than that isrequired for the drying, it may be necessary to light the burnersagain before the end of the process. The products should be turnedconstantly, so that they may dry evenly.

When using any oven for drying you can cover the oven racks withcheesecloth and spread the products on them. Always have the rackstwo or three inches apart to allow free circulation of air.

An effective dryer for use over a stove or range may easily bemade at home. For the frame use strips of wood a half inch thickand two inches wide. The trays or shelves are made ofgalvanized-wire screen of small mesh tacked to the supports.Separate trays sliding on strips attached to the framework aredesirable. This dryer may be suspended from the ceiling over thekitchen stove or range or over an oil, gasoline or gas stove, andit may be used while cooking is being done. If an oil stove is usedthere must be a tightly fitting tin or galvanized-iron bottom tothe dryer, to prevent the fumes of the oil from reaching andpassing through the material which is to be dried. A bottom of thiskind may be easily attached to any dryer, homemade or commercial. Aframework crane makes it possible for this dryer to be swung to oneside when not in use.

A larger kind of homemade stove dryer can be made. This is agood size: base, 16 by 24 inches; height, 36 inches. The lower partor supporting framework, six inches high, is made of galvanizedsheet iron, slightly flaring toward the bottom, and with twoventilating holes in each of the four sides. The frame which restson this base is made of strips of wood one or one and a half incheswide. Wooden strips, an inch and a quarter wide and three inchesapart, serve to brace the sides and furnish supports for thetrays.

In a dryer of the dimensions given there is room for eighttrays. The sides, top and back are of galvanized-iron or tinsheets, tacked to the framework, though thin strips of wood may beused instead of the metal. Small hinges and a thumb latch areprovided for the door. Galvanized sheet iron, with numerous smallholes in it, is used for making the bottom of the dryer. To preventdirect heat from coming in contact with the product and also todistribute the heat by radiation, a piece of galvanized sheet ironis placed two inches above the bottom. This piece is three inchesshorter and three inches narrower than the bottom and rests on twowires fastened to the sides.

The trays are made of wooden frames of one-inch strips, to whichis tacked galvanized-wire screen. Each tray should be three inchesshorter than the dryer and enough narrower to allow it to slideeasily on the supports when being put in or taken out.

In placing the trays in the dryer push the lower one back as faras it will go, leaving a three-inch space in front. Place the nexttray even with the front, leaving the space at the back. Alternateall the trays in this way to facilitate the circulation of theheated air. It is well to have a ventilating opening, six by twoinches, in the top of the dryer to discharge moisture. The traysshould be shifted during the drying process to procure uniformityof drying.

Several types of stove dryers are on the market. One of thesehas a series of trays in a framework, forming a compartment. Thisis placed on top of the stove. Another is a shallow metal box whichis filled with water. This is really a water-bath dryer. This dryeror dehydrator can be used on either a gas or coal range. Athermometer is necessary in order to maintain the righttemperature. The slices of vegetables or fruit are placed on thetray with the thermometer, and the dryer does the work.

Commercial dryers having their own furnaces may be bought atprices ranging from $24 to $120. Some of these, in the smallersizes, may be bought without furnaces and used on top of thekitchen stove. The cost is from $16 upward.

Sun drying has much to recommend it. There is no expense forfuel, no thermometer is needed, and there is no danger ofoverheating the fruits or vegetables.

For sun drying of fruits and vegetables, the simplest way is tospread the slices or pieces on sheets of plain paper or lengths ofmuslin and expose them to the sun. Muslin is to be preferred ifthere is danger of sticking. Trays may be used instead of paper ormuslin. Sun drying requires bright, hot days and a breeze. Once ortwice a day the product should be turned or stirred and the drypieces taken out. The drying product should be covered withcheesecloth tacked to a frame for protection from dust and flyinginsects. If trays are rested on supports placed in pans of water,the products will be protected from crawling insects. Care must betaken to provide protection from rain, dew and moths. During rainsand just before sunset the products should be taken indoors.

To make a cheap tray for use in sun drying, take strips of woodthree-quarters of an inch thick and two inches wide for the sidesand ends. To form the bottom, laths should be nailed to thesestrips, with spaces of one-eighth of an inch between the laths topermit air circulation. A length of four feet, corresponding to thestandard lengths of laths, is economical. Instead of the lathsgalvanized-wire screen with openings of one-eighth or one-quarterof an inch, may be used. In using wire the size of the tray shouldbe regulated by the width of wire screen obtainable. The traysshould be of uniform size, so that they may be stacked together forconvenience in handling.

A small homemade sun dryer, easily constructed, is made of lightstrips of wood, a sheet of glass, a small amount of galvanized-wirescreen and some cheesecloth. A convenient size for the glass top iseighteen by twenty-four inches. To hold the glass make a lightwooden frame of strips of wood a half inch thick and one inch wide.This frame should have legs of material one by one and a halfinches, with a length of twelve inches for the front legs andeighteen inches for those in the rear. This will cause the top toslope, which aids in circulation of air and gives direct exposureto the rays of the sun. As a tray support nail a strip of wood tothe legs on each of the four sides, about four inches below the topframework and sloping parallel with the top. The tray is made ofthin strips of wood about two inches wide and has a galvanized-wirescreen bottom. There will be a space of about two inches betweenthe top edges of the tray and the glass top of the dryer, to allowfor circulation of air.

Protect both sides, the bottom and the front of the dryer withcheesecloth, tacked on securely and snugly, to exclude insects anddust without interfering with circulation. At the rear place acheesecloth curtain, tacked at the top but swinging free below, toallow the tray to be moved in and out. Brace the bottom of thiscurtain with a thin strip of wood, as is done in window shades.This curtain is to be fastened to the legs by buttons when the trayis in place. If you have a sunny, breezy attic you can hang yourdrying trays there.

The use of an electric fan is an effective means of drying. Asthere is no danger of the food scorching, the fan proves aseffective as the sun for drying.

Sliced vegetables or fruits are placed on trays one foot wideand three feet long. These trays are stacked and the fan placedclose to one end, with the current of air directed lengthwise alongthe trays. The number of trays to be used is regulated by the sizeof the fan. Drying by this process may be done in twenty-four hoursor less. With sliced string beans and shredded sweet potatoes a fewhours are sufficient if the air is dry.

Of importance equal to proper drying is the proper packing andstorage of the finished product. Use baking-powder and coffee cansand similar covered tins, pasteboard boxes with tight-fittingcovers, strong paper bags, and patented paraffin paper boxes, whichmay be bought in quantities at comparatively low cost.

A paraffin container of the type used by oyster dealers for thedelivery of oysters will be found inexpensive and easily handled.If using this or a baking-powder can or similar container, afterfilling adjust the cover closely. The cover should then be sealed.To do this paste a strip of paper round the top of the can,covering the joint between can and cover for the purpose ofexcluding air. Pasteboard boxes should be sealed by applying meltedparaffin with a brush to the joint.

If a paper bag is used the top should be twisted, doubled overand tied with a string. Moisture may be kept out of paper bags bycoating them, using a brush dipped into melted paraffin. Anothergood precaution is to store bags in an ordinary lard pail or can orother tin vessel having a closely fitting cover.

The products should be stored in a cool, dry place, wellventilated and protected from rats, mice and insects. In localitieswhere the air is very moist, moisture-proof containers must beused. It is good practice to use small containers, so that it willnot be necessary to leave the contents exposed long after openingand before using.

A very good plan is to pack just enough fruit or vegetables forone or two meals in each container. This will lessen the chance oflarge quantities being spoiled. For convenience label allpackages.

CHAPTER XIII

HOW TO DRY FRUITS

Having decided to add the accomplishment of drying to your otherhousewifely arts, you have given some thought and study to thesubject of driers. You now know whether you prefer sun, artificialor fan drying. You have either made or bought some kind of a drier.Little other equipment is needed.

A few good paring knives, some plates, and if possible somecutting or slicing device to lighten the work of preparation areall that are necessary. A sharp kitchen knife will serve everypurpose in slicing and cutting fruits for drying, if no otherdevice is at hand. The thickness of all slices of fruit should befrom an eighth to a quarter of an inch. Whether sliced or cut intostrips the pieces should be small, so as to dry quickly. Theyshould not, however, be so small as to make them hard to handle orto keep them from being used to advantage in preparing dishes forthe table, such as would be prepared from fresh products. Berriesare dried whole. Apples, quinces, peaches and pears dry better ifcut into halves, rings or quarters.

Cleanliness is essential. A knife blade that is not bright andclean will discolor the product on which it is used.

Winter apples should be chosen for drying when possible, assweet apples and early varieties are not so well adapted to thepurpose. The Northern Spy, the Baldwin and the Ben Davis give agood-flavored dried product. Most early varieties lack sufficientfirmness of texture for the best results. On the other hand, somecomparatively early kinds, such as Gravenstein and Porter, areconsiderably prized in some sections.

To prepare them for drying, apples are peeled, cored, trimmedand sliced one quarter of an inch thick. Be sure to cut out allworm holes, decayed spots and other blemishes. Defects are easilycut out with an ordinary straight-back, sharp-pointed knife havinga blade two and a half to three inches long.

To prevent discoloration, as fast as the fruit is prepared dipit into a weak salt solution—three level teaspoonfuls of saltto one gallon of water. After all the apples are prepared, removesurplus moisture and put on trays, water-bath drier or whateverdevice you are using.

HOW TO REGULATE THE HEAT

Start with the temperature at 110 degrees Fahrenheit, graduallyraise it to 130 degrees and do the drying at that temperature. Itis important to know the degree of heat in the drier, and thiscannot be determined very accurately except by using a thermometer.Inexpensive oven thermometers can be bought or an ordinarythermometer can be suspended in the drier. If a thermometer is notused the greatest care should be given to the regulation of theheat. The temperature in the drier rises rather quickly and theproduct may scorch unless close attention is given to it.

The reason sun drying is popularly believed to give fruits andvegetables a sweeter flavor probably is that in the sun they neverare scorched, whereas in the oven or over a stove scorching islikely to happen unless one is very careful. An oven or dairythermometer is a good investment. If you do not have a thermometertest the heat by the air feeling warm to the hand. The productshould never be so hot that it cannot be grasped in the hand. Inorder to prevent the fruit from burning where artificial heat isused and to keep it from sticking to the drier by remaining incontact with it too long, stir the fruit occasionally. To insurethe most uniform drying in sun drying, the fruit also should bestirred occasionally.

Remember that if trays with metal bottoms are used for drying,they should be covered with cheesecloth to prevent acid action.Oven racks may be covered with either cheesecloth or heavy wrappingpaper.

The interval between stirring varies with the type of drierused, with the condition of the fruit and with the degree of heatmaintained. Make the first stirring within two hours after thedrying is begun. After that examine the product from time to timeand stir often enough to prevent scorching or sticking and toinsure uniform drying. Use a wooden paddle for stirring. Whereseveral trays or racks are placed one above the other, it isnecessary to shift the trays from time to time, so the upper traygoes to the bottom and the bottom tray to the top.

The time necessary for drying fruit depends upon severalfactors: The type and construction of the drier; the depth to whichthe fruit is spread; the method of preparing, whether sliced,quartered or whole; the temperature maintained; and weatherconditions, whether bright and sunny or cloudy and damp.

If the atmosphere is heavy and damp the drying is retarded.Under some conditions it is hardly possible thoroughly to dryfruit.

There is possibly no step in the entire drying process thatrequires better-trained judgment than the matter of knowing whenthe fruit is sufficiently dried. A little experience will soonteach this.

The fruit should be so dry that when a handful of slices ispressed together firmly into a ball the slices will be "springy"enough to separate at once upon being released from the hand. Nofruit should have any visible moisture on the surface. As the driedapples, pears, peaches and apricots are handled they should feelsoft and velvety to the touch and have a pliable texture. You donot want fruit so dry that it will rattle. If fruits are brittleyou have dried them too much.

After the apples and all other fruits are dried they must gothrough another process, called "conditioning." The best way to"condition" fruits is to place them in boxes or cans and pour themfrom one container into another once a day for three or foursuccessive days. By doing this you mix the fruit thoroughly andgive to the whole mass an even degree of moisture. Pieces that aretoo dry will absorb moisture from those that are too moist.

You may lose a whole bag or jar of dried products if you neglectthe conditioning, for if one moist piece goes into that bag all islost. Moisture breeds mold and mold means decay.

Ask yourself these questions: "Do I ever lose any driedproducts? Are my dried products when soaked and cooked as near likethe original fruit as possible?" If you lose products and if yourdried fruits are tasteless you had better start the conditioningprocess. For with this one step added to your drying you need loseno dried products, and you need not dry the fruits to the brittlestage, as you must of necessity do when you put them awayimmediately.

After you have poured the dried products back and forth everyday for three or four days as an additional precaution, reheat thedried fruit to 140 degrees just long enough—about thirtyminutes—to allow the heat to penetrate throughout theproduct.

Two kinds of moths stand out prominently among insects thatattack dried fruits and vegetables. They are much more likely toget into the fruit during the process of drying than to find theirway through boxes into the stored products. This appliesparticularly to drying in the sun. The Indian-meal moth is the mostdestructive of these insects. It is about three-eighths of an inchlong and has a cloaked appearance, one-third gray and the restcopper-brown. The fig moth is about the same size, but dark,neutral gray. A minute, flattened chocolate-brown beetle usuallyaccompanies these moths and does considerable damage. Both of themoths deposit their eggs on fruit when it is on the dryingracks—usually at dusk or after dark, for these insects arenot fond of daylight.

It takes from three to ten days for the eggs to hatch intowhitish or pinkish grublike caterpillars, and from five to tenweeks from the laying of the eggs before more moths appear to layanother lot of eggs. A number of "broods" or generations areproduced yearly, so if a few of these moth eggs are stored away ondried fruits or vegetables hundreds of caterpillars are producedand many pounds of valuable material may be destroyed during thewinter if the products are stored in a warm room. Dried fruitsstored in warm, dark bins or in sacks offer especially favorableplaces for the development of these destructive moths.

It is evident that the larger the package, the greater thechance of a few eggs doing much damage. Small cartons or containersconfine the injury from these moths to small quantities ofmaterial; for if the containers are closed tightly the insectscannot easily escape from them and infest other packages which maynot have been infested previously.

If you are drying by sun and the products are not thoroughly dryat night, finish the process on the stove. If you desire to carryit over to the next day screen the drying racks early in theevening and fasten down the cheesecloth. With these precautions andwith proper storage, no danger ordinarily need be feared from theseinsects. The additional precaution of heating the dried product to140 degrees for thirty minutes sterilizes it if alreadyinfested.

Though not necessary, tin cans or glass jars make goodreceptacles for storage of dried fruits or vegetables. Pasteboardboxes with tight covers, stout paper bags and patented paraffinpaper cartons also afford ample protection for dried products whenprotected from insects and rodents. The dried products must beprotected from outside moisture, and will keep best in a cool, dry,well-ventilated place. These conditions, however, are difficult toobtain in the more humid regions, and there moisture-tightcontainers should be used. If a small amount of dried product isput in each receptacle, just enough for one or two meals, it willnot be necessary to open a container, the contents of which cannotbe consumed in a short time. If a paper bag is used the upper partshould be twisted into a neck, bent over and tied tightly with astring. A further precaution is to place the small bags in a tincontainer with a tightly fitting cover, such as an ordinary lardcan. All bags should bear a label.

Pears and quinces usually are prepared and dried exactly as areapples. Pears are attractive when cut lengthwise into halves, withthe stem and calyx removed but the core left in. Or they may bequartered. If sliced like apples the drying period isshortened.

Peaches usually are dried unpeeled, but they are better ifpeeled before drying. The first step in the preparation of peachesis to split them open to remove the pit. To do this, cut completelyround the peach in the line of the suture with a sharp knife. Thecut must be complete, for tearing of the flesh will make thefinished product less attractive. If the fruit is to be peeled theparing should be done before it is cut open to remove the pit.

To facilitate the removal of the skin, dip the peaches in akettle of boiling water for one and a half minutes; then plungedirectly into cold water, after which the skins can be easilyslipped off. After the pit has been removed, lay on drier pit sideup. The juice of the fruit will collect in the pit or "cup" andwill add to the flavor and quality of the dried peaches. Thepeaches can be cut into smaller pieces if you wish to lessen thedrying period.

Plums and apricots are not peeled, but are cut into halves, thepits removed and dried in the same way as peaches. Small,thin-fleshed varieties of plums are not suitable for drying.

When drying cherries always remove the stems. The pits may ormay not be removed. The best product for later cooking or eatinghas the pit removed, though large quantities of juices are lost inthe pitting unless you provide some way of saving and utilizingit.

A prune is simply a plum having certain qualities not possessedby all plums. All prunes are plums, but not all plums are prunes.The final test as to whether a plum is a prune is the ability todry without fermenting with the pit still remaining in the fruit.If a plum cannot dry without fermentation unless the pit isremoved, it is not a prune. Prunes for drying, like other fruits,should be fully ripe.

Prunes are merely washed and then dried without removing thepits. The fruit is dry when the skin is well shrunken. The textureshould be firm but springy and pliable enough to yield readily whenpressed in the hand. The drying should not be continued until theindividual prunes rattle as they are brought in contact with oneanother in handling. Prunes must be conditioned before storing.

In drying, prunes shrink about two-thirds in weight—thatis, for every three pounds of fresh fruit you get one pound offinished product.

Smaller fruits, such as red and black raspberries, blackberries,huckleberries, dewberries, strawberries and blueberries, are simplywashed and then put to dry. Berries must not be dried too hard; iftoo much moisture is removed they will not resume their originalform when soaked in water. But the material must be driedsufficiently or it will mold. Haven't you often tasted extremelyseedy dried berries? They were dried until they rattled. Stop thedrying as soon as the berries fail to stain the hand whenpressed.

To obtain the most satisfactory results soft fruits should beonly one layer deep on the drying trays.

Fruits contain about 80 to 95 per cent water and when driedsufficiently still retain from 15 to 20 per cent of water, so it isa good plan to weigh before and after drying. The product shouldlose from two-thirds to four-fifths of its weight.

STEPS IN FRUIT DRYING

1. Thoroughly cleanse the product.

2. Prepare the product by slicing and so on.

3. Spread on trays; put in oven or put on commercial drier.

4. Stir occasionally.

5. Shift trays.

6. Test for completeness of drying.

7. "Condition" for three or four days. Sweet fruits may containmore moisture without spoiling than those of low sugar content.

8. Heat to 140 degrees Fahrenheit for thirty minutes, to killall insects.

9. Pack immediately in available receptacles.

10. Label and store.

FRUIT PASTES

Fruit pastes are delicious and can be dried.

1. Select, wash, prepare fruit.

2. Cook until soft; stir.

3. Add sugar to sweeten.

4. Continue cooking until very thick.

5. Spread out flat by spoonfuls on oiled paper.

6. Dry in slow oven; finish drying over kitchen range.

7. Turn from time to time like griddle cakes.

Nuts of all kinds can be dried in these cakes, which may be leftwhole or cut in strips with scissors.

CANDIED FRUITS AND VEGETABLES

1. Select product of uniform size and ripeness.

2. Wash; prepare in usual way.

3. Cut fruit in halves, quarters or smaller sections; cutvegetables in narrow strips two and a half inches long.

4. Drop in a sirup cooked until it spins a thread. To prepareginger sirup, add a few roots of ginger to the sirup.

5. Cook until transparent.

6. Drain.

7. Dry in slow oven; Finish drying over kitchen range.

8. Roll in granulated sugar. (May be omitted for fruits.)

This method is recommended especially for candied apples,peaches, pears and carrots.

In a properly constructed sun drier, all fruits will dry in from3 to 12 hours, under normal summer conditions. Time depends ondryness of atmosphere, sunshine and wind. Products dried in a sundrier, no matter how crude, are superior to those dried in the openwithout protection of some kind. Products dry more rapidly in highaltitudes than at sea level.

Racks in oven can be used. Plates or platters can be used inoven. A stove drier hung over the stove can be used. A water-bathor other commercial drier can be used with the stove.

TIME-TABLE FOR DRYING FRUITS

CHAPTER XIV

HOW TO DRY VEGETABLES

Vegetable drying is a little more complicated than fruit drying,just as vegetable canning is more complicated than fruit canning.Blanching is an important part of the operation. It makes vegetabledrying satisfactory as well as easy and simple, just as it makesvegetable canning possible.

However, there is one difference between blanching vegetablesfor canning and blanching them for drying. After repeatedexperiments it has been found that for drying purposes it is bestto blanch all vegetables in steam rather than in boiling water. Invegetable canning we blanch almost all vegetables in boiling water,usually steaming only the members of the "green" family.

So remember that for drying all vegetables are blanched insteam. To do this steaming you can use your ordinary householdsteamer, such as you use for steaming brown breads and suetpuddings, or you can simply place a colander over boiling water ina kettle. Do not allow the colander to touch the water. If you arefortunate enough to possess a pressure cooker, steam the vegetablesfor drying in it.

Blanching is necessary for many reasons. It removes the strongflavors, objectionable to many people. Beans, cabbage, turnips andonions have too strong a flavor if dried without blanching.Furthermore, it starts the color to flowing, just as it does incanning. It removes the sticky coating round vegetables. Mostvegetables have a protective covering to prevent evaporation. Theremoval of this covering by blanching facilitates drying. Blanchingalso relaxes the tissues, drives out the air and improves thecapillary attraction, and as a result the drying is done in a muchshorter period. Products dry less rapidly when the texture is firmand the tissue contains air.

Blanching checks the ripening processes. The ripening process isdestroyed by heating and this is to be desired for dryingpurposes.

Blanching kills the cells and thus prevents the hay-like flavorso often noticed in unblanched products. It prevents changes afterdrying, which otherwise will occur unless the water content isreduced to about five per cent.

Thorough blanching makes the product absolutely sanitary; noinsect eggs exist after blanching and cold-dipping.

There is one precaution that must be followed: Do not blanch toolong. Blanching too long seems to break down the cell structure, sothat the product cannot be restored to its original color, shape orsize. Follow the blanching time-table for drying just as carefullyas you follow the blanching time-table for canning.

After the blanching comes the cold-dip. For the benefit of newcanning and drying enthusiasts, let me explain that by "cold-dip"we mean plunging the product immediately into a pan of very coldwater or holding it under the cold-water faucet until the productis thoroughly cooled. Do not let the product stand in cold water,as it would then lose more food value and absorb too muchwater.

You can cold-dip the product without removing it from thecolander, strainer or steamer in which it is steamed. Plunge thevessel containing the product into the cold water.

The cold-dipping checks the cooking, sets the coloring matterwhich was started to flowing in the blanching process, and it makesthe product much easier to handle.

Let us now see just exactly what we must do when we want to drysweet corn, more of which is dried than of any other vegetable. Allother vegetables are dried in the same way as is corn, the onlydifference being in the length of the blanching and dryingperiod.

All vegetables are prepared for drying just as they are preparedfor table use. When drying corn select ears that are young andtender, and if possible freshly gathered. Products for dryingshould be in the same perfect condition as you have them for tableuse. If wilted and old it is not worth while drying them.

Remove the husks and the silk, and steam—on thecob—for fifteen minutes. This sets the milk, besides doingmany other things which blanching by steam always does. After thesteaming, cold-dip the corn, and then cut it from the cob, using avery sharp and flexible knife. Cut the grains fine, but onlyhalfway down to the cob; scrape out the remainder of the grains,being careful not to scrape off any of the chaff next to thecob.

When field corn is used, the good, plump cooking stage is theproper degree of ripeness for satisfactory drying.

The corn should be thoroughly drained as this facilitatesdrying. You can easily remove all surface moisture by placing thecorn between two towels and patting them.

It is now ready for drying. The corn may be dried in the sun,but if so, it is advisable first to dry it in the oven for ten orfifteen minutes and then finish the drying in the sun. Neverattempt sun drying in moist weather. The corn may be dried byartificial heat, either on top of the stove or in the oven, usingeither plates, oven-racks properly covered, or any commercialdryer.

Work quickly after the blanching and cold-dipping and get thecorn heated as quickly as possible in order to prevent souring. Youget "flat-sour" often when canning if you do not work quicklyenough, and you will get sour vegetables in drying if you work tooslowly.

Where artificial heat is used begin at a lower temperature andgradually increase it. As the corn is drying, stir it from time totime and readjust the trays if necessary.

After the drying comes the test to determine whether or not thecorn is sufficiently dry. Vegetables at this point differ fromfruits. Fruits are dried only until leathery, whereas vegetablesare dried until they are bone-dry. They must crackle and snap.

This test is sometimes used to see if the product issufficiently dry: Put some of it in a covered glass jar with acrisp soda cracker and keep them there for a few hours. If thecracker loses its crispness and becomes soft and damp there isstill too much moisture in the product and it should be dried alittle longer to obtain the degree of dryness required.

After the corn is bone-dry it should, like all other vegetablesand fruits, be conditioned. This means to pour them from one bag orbox to another, once a day for three or four days. This enables youto notice any moisture that may be left in the dried food. Foodsthat show any traces of moisture should be returned to the dryingtray for a short time.

Notice Lima beans particularly, as they require a longerconditioning period than most vegetables.

After the conditioning, in order to kill all insects and destroyall eggs, it is advisable to place the vegetables on trays and heatthem in an oven for half an hour at a temperature of 140 degreesFahrenheit. Store directly from the oven.

Dried vegetables are stored just as are dried fruits—incans, cracked jars that cannot be used for canning, fibercontainers, cheesecloth, paper bags or paraffin containers.

In storing your dried products keep in mind these things:Protection from moisture, insects, rats, mice, dust and light. Ifyou observe all these things it is unnecessary to have air-tightcontainers.

All varieties of string beans can be dried, but only those fitfor table use should be used. Old, stringy, tough beans will remainthe same kind of beans when dried. There are two ways of preparingstring, wax or snap beans for drying:

1. Wash; remove stem, tip and string. Cut or break into piecesone-half to one inch long; blanch three to ten minutes, accordingto age and freshness, in steam; cold-dip. Place on trays or dryer.If you have a vegetable slicer it can be used for slicing thebeans.

2. Prepare as above, then blanch the whole beans. Aftercold-dipping, thread them on coarse, strong thread, making long"necklaces" of them; hang them above the stove or out of doorsuntil dry.

Lima beans should be shelled from the pod and then blanched twoto five minutes if young and tender. If larger and more matureblanch five to ten minutes.

Okra is blanched for three minutes. If the pods are young andsmall, dry them whole. Older pods should be cut into quarter-inchslices. Small tender pods are sometimes strung on stout thread andhung up to dry.

Peppers may be dried by splitting on one side, removing theseed, drying in the air, and finishing the drying in the dryer at130 degrees Fahrenheit. A more satisfactory method is to placepeppers in a biscuit pan in the oven and heat until the skinsblister; or to steam them until the skin softens, peel, split inhalf, take out seed, and dry at 110 to 130 degrees. In dryingthick-fleshed peppers like the pimento, do not increase heat tooquickly, but dry slowly and evenly.

Small varieties of red peppers may be spread in the sun untilwilted and the drying finished in the dryer, or they may be driedentirely in the sun.

Peppers often are dried whole. If large they can be strung onthread; if small the whole plant can be hung up to dry.

Shell full-grown peas and blanch three to five minutes; cold-dipand then spread in a single layer on trays to dry.

When drying the very tender young sugar peas, use the pod also.Wash and cut in quarter-inch pieces. Blanch six minutes, cold-dipand remove surplus moisture before drying. When drying beets alwaysselect young, quickly grown, tender beets. Steam twenty to thirtyminutes, or until the skin cracks. Dip in cold water, peel andslice into one-eighth to one-quarter inch slices. Then dry.

Carrots having a large, woody core should not be dried. Blanchsix minutes; cold-dip. Carrots are often sliced lengthwise intopieces about one-eighth inch thick. Parsnips, kohl-rabi, celeriacand salsify are prepared in the same way as are carrots.

Onions should be held under water while peeling and slicing toavoid smarting of the eyes. They should be sliced into one-eighthto one-quarter inch slices. Blanch five minutes, cold-dip, removesuperfluous moisture and dry. Leeks are handled as are onions.

Select well-developed heads of cabbage and remove all looseoutside leaves. Split the cabbage, remove the hard, woody core andslice the remainder of the head with a kraut slicer or cutter orwith a large, sharp knife. Blanch five to ten minutes and cold-dip;dry.

Spinach and parsley should be carefully washed. Steam, cold-dipand dry. If the spinach is sliced the drying will be greatlyfacilitated. Beet tops, Swiss chard and celery are prepared likespinach.

Select sound, well-matured Irish potatoes. Wash and boil orsteam until nearly done. Peel and pass through a meat grinder or apotato ricer. Collect the shred in layers on a tray and dry untilbrittle. If toasted slightly in an oven when dry, the flavor isimproved somewhat; or boil or steam until nearly done, peel, cutinto quarter-inch slices, spread on trays, and dry until brittle.Peeling may be omitted, but the product will be very much inferiorin flavor. Irish potatoes cannot be satisfactorily dried unlessthey are first cooked; otherwise they will discolor.

All root vegetables must be thoroughly cleaned, otherwise anearthy flavor may cling to them. One decayed root may seriouslyaffect several pots of vegetable soup.

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS

1. All vegetables should be completely dried in from two totwenty-four hours.

2. Materials should be turned or stirred several times to securea uniform product.

3. If heat is used guard against scorching. The door is leftopen if an oven is used; the temperature should be about 110degrees at the beginning and usually should not exceed 130 degrees.Onions, string beans and peas will yellow at more than 140degrees.

4. A thermometer is essential to successful drying by artificialheat.

5. It is impossible to give definite lengths of times for thecompletion of sun drying, as this varies not only with differentproducts but with the weather. A sultry, rainy day is the worst fordrying.

6. Vegetables should be stone dry.

7. Succulent vegetables and fruits contain from 80 to 95 percent of water, and when dried sufficiently still retain from 15 to20 per cent; so it is a good plan to weigh before and after dryingas a check. The product should lose from two-thirds to four-fifthsof its weight.

8. Work rapidly to prevent souring of vegetables.

9. Small vegetables, mature beans and peas and small onions maybe dried whole. Larger vegetables should be cut up so as to exposemore surface for drying.

10. The slicing, cutting and shredding should be done beforeblanching, with the exception of corn, which is cut from the cobafter blanching.

TIME-TABLE FOR DRYING VEGETABLES

[1] Till skin cracks.

In a properly constructed sun drier vegetables will dry in from3 to 12 hours under normal summer conditions. Products dried in asun drier are superior to those dried in the open without anyprotection. Products dry more quickly in high altitudes than at sealevel.

CHAPTER XV

EVERY STEP IN BRINING

We have learned how to preserve fruit and vegetables by canningand drying and now we are going to learn another method to preservefoods, in which salt is used. We use this salt method forvegetables. It is not adapted to fruits. We may pickle apples,pears and peaches, but we ferment, brine and dry-salt onlyvegetables.

This salt method is not a substitute for drying or canning, butjust an additional method we may employ. Every thrifty housewife ofto-day wants her shelves of canned foods, her boxes of dried foodsand her crocks of salted foods. Each kind has its proper functionto perform in the household. One cannot take the place of theother.

For women on the farm salting is a salvation. In busy seasonswhen canning and drying seem an impossibility, a great manyvegetables can be saved by this method in a very short time. Thelabor required is very small, as no cooking is necessary. A goodsupply of salt is the one necessity.

Besides the saving of time, salting saves jars, which areabsolutely necessary in canning. Old containers can be used if theyare thoroughly cleansed. The vegetables can be put in anycontainer, so long as it holds water and is not made of metal.Metal containers should not be used. Old kegs, butter and lard tubsif water-tight, stoneware jars or crocks, chipped preserve jars,glass jars with missing covers and covered enamel buckets can allbe utilized. Avoid using tubs made of pitch or soft pine unlesscoated with melted paraffin, as they impart a flavor to thevegetables. Maple is the best.

THREE METHODS OF SALTING FOOD

There are three ways of preserving food by salting: First,fermentation with dry salting; second, fermentation in brine orbrining; and third, salting without fermentation, or drysalting.

Dry Salting. Fermentation with dry salting consists inpacking the material with a small amount of salt. No water is used,for the salt will extract the water from the vegetables and thisforms a brine. This is the simplest process of all three and isused mostly for cabbage. To make sauerkraut proceed as follows: Theoutside green leaves of the cabbage should be removed, just as inpreparing the head for boiling. Never use any decayed or bruisedleaves. Quarter the heads and shred the cabbage very finely. Thereare shredding machines on the market, but if one is not availableuse a slaw cutter or a large sharp knife.

After the cabbage is shredded pack at once into a clean barrel,keg or tub, or into an earthenware crock holding four or fivegallons. The smaller containers are recommended for household use.When packing distribute the salt as uniformly as possible, usingone pound of salt to forty pounds of cabbage. Sprinkle a littlesalt in the container and put in a layer of three or four inches ofshredded cabbage, then pack down with a wooden utensil like apotato masher. Repeat with salt, cabbage and packing until thecontainer is full or the shredded cabbage is all used.

Press the cabbage down as tightly as possible and apply a cloth,and then a glazed plate or a board cover which will go inside theholder. If using a wooden cover select wood free from pitch, suchas basswood. On top of this cover place stone, bricks or otherweights—use flint or granite; avoid the use of limestone,sandstone or marble. These weights serve to keep vegetables beneaththe surface of the liquid. The proportion of salt to food whenfermenting with dry salt is a quarter pound of salt to ten poundsof food. Do not use more, for the product will taste too salty.

Allow fermentation to proceed for ten days or two weeks, if theroom is warm. In a cellar or other cool place three to five weeksmay be required. Skim off the film which forms when fermentationstarts and repeat this daily if necessary to keep this film frombecoming a scum. When gas bubbles cease to rise when you strike theside of the container, fermentation is complete. If there is a scumit should be removed.

As a final step pour very hot melted paraffin over the brineuntil it forms a layer from a quarter to a half-inch thick, toprevent the formation of the scum which occurs if the weather iswarm or the storage place is not well cooled. The cabbage may beused as soon as the bubbles cease to rise. If scum forms andremains the cabbage will spoil. You may can the cabbage as soon asbubbles cease to rise and fermentation is complete. To can, filljars, adjust rubbers and partly seal. Sterilize 120 minutes inhot-water bath, or 60 minutes in steam-pressure outfit at five toten pounds pressure.

The vital factor in preserving the material by this method isthe lactic acid which develops in fermentation.

If the vegetables are covered with a very strong brine or arepacked with a fairly large amount of salt, lactic acid fermentationand also the growth of other forms of bacteria and molds areprevented. This method of preservation is especially applicable tothose vegetables which contain so little sugar that sufficientlactic acid cannot be formed by bacterial action to insure theirpreservation.

In the well-known method of vinegar pickling the acetic acid ofthe vinegar acts as a preservative like the lactic acid produced byfermentation. Sometimes brining precedes pickling in vinegar, andoften the pickling is modified by the addition of sugar and spices,which add flavor as well as helping to preserve the fruit orvegetables. In some cases olive oil or some other table oil isadded to the vinegar, as in the making of oil cucumber pickles.

Besides sauerkraut, string beans, beet tops, turnip tops,greens, kale and dandelions are adapted for fermentation with drysalting. String beans should be young, tender and not overgrown.Remove the tip ends and strings; cut or break into pieces about twoinches long. Wash the beet and turnip tops as well as all greens,in order to remove dirt and grit. Weigh all products that are to besalted.

For salting, a supply of ordinary fine salt, which can bepurchased in bulk for about two cents a pound, is most satisfactoryfor general use. Table salt will do very well, but it is ratherexpensive if large quantities of vegetables are to be preserved.The rather coarse salt—known in the trade as "ground alumsalt"—which is used in freezing ice cream can be used. Rocksalt because of its coarseness and impurities should not beused.

A weight must be used. The size of the weight depends on thequantity of material being preserved. For a five-gallon keg aweight of ten pounds will be sufficient, but if a larger barrel isused a heavier weight will be needed. The weight should besufficient to extract the juices to form a brine, which will coverthe top in about twenty-four hours. If a brine does not form it maybe necessary to add more stones after the material has stood awhile.

There always will be more or less bubbling and foaming of thebrine during the first stages of fermentation. After this ceases athin film will appear which will rapidly spread over the wholesurface and quickly develop into a heavy, folded membrane. Thisscum is a growth of yeast-like organisms which feed upon the acidformed by fermentation. If allowed to grow undisturbed it willeventually destroy all the acid and the fermented material willspoil. To prevent mold from forming it is necessary to exclude theair from the surface of the brine.

Perhaps the best method is to cover the surface—over theboard and round the weight—with very hot, melted paraffin. Ifthe paraffin is hot enough to make the brine boil when poured in,the paraffin will form a smooth, even layer before hardening. Uponsolidifying, it forms an air-tight seal. Oils, such as cottonseedoil or the tasteless liquid petroleum, may also be used for thispurpose. As a measure of safety with crocks, it is advisable tocover the top with a cloth soaked in melted paraffin. Put the coverin place before the paraffin hardens.

After sealing with paraffin the containers should be set wherethey will not be disturbed until the contents are to be used. Anyattempt to remove them from one place to another may break theparaffin seal and necessitate resealing.

Some vegetables which do not contain sufficient water are betterfermented by covering them with a weak brine. Those which are themost satisfactory when fermented in this way are cucumbers, stringbeans, green tomatoes, beets, beet tops, turnip tops, corn andgreen peas. The general directions for this brining are asfollows:

Wash the vegetables, drain off the surplus water and pack themin a keg, crock, or other utensil until it is nearlyfull—within about three inches of the top of the vessel.Prepare a weak brine as follows: To each gallon of water used addone-half pint of vinegar and three-fourths of a cup of salt andstir until the salt is entirely dissolved. The vinegar is usedprimarily to keep down the growth of injurious bacteria until thelactic-acid ferment starts, but it also adds to the flavor. Spicesmay be added if desired.

The amount of brine necessary to cover the vegetables will beequal to about one-half the volume of the material to be fermented.For example, if a five-gallon keg is to be packed, two and one-halfgallons will be needed. It is best to make up at one time all thebrine needed on one day. A clean tub or barrel can be used formixing the brine. Pour the brine over the vegetables and cover. Setthe vessel and its contents away in a moderately warm room toferment.

When fermentation ceases, the container should be placed in acool cellar or storeroom and the surface of the liquid treated toprevent mold. Before adding the paraffin or cottonseed oil, anyscum or mold which may have formed on the surface of the liquidshould be removed by skimming.

These general directions can always be followed with successfulresults, but some modifications are desirable for certainvegetables.

Cucumbers—Dill Style. To pickle cucumbers wash thecucumbers and pack into a clean, water-tight barrel, keg or crock.On the bottom of the barrel place a layer of dill weed and ahandful of mixed spice. Add another layer of dill and anotherhandful of spice when the barrel is half full, and when almostfull, add a third layer. If a keg or crock is used, the amount ofdill and spice can be reduced in proportion to the size of thereceptacle. When the container has been filled to within a fewinches of the top, add a layer of covering material—beetleaves or grape leaves—about an inch thick. If any spoilageshould occur on the surface, this layer will protect the vegetablesbeneath. Press down with a clean board weighted with bricks orstone.

Make the brine as given in the general rules. Add sufficientbrine to cover the material and allow it to stand twenty-fourhours. Then make air-tight. The time necessary for completefermentation to occur depends upon the temperature. In a warm placefive days to a week may suffice; in a cool cellar three to fourweeks.

The dill and spices may be omitted, in which case we then haveplain cucumbers.

String Beans. Remove the ends and strings from the beansand cut into pieces about two inches long; pack in the container;cover with brine and ferment.

Green Tomatoes. Green tomatoes should be packed whole andprepared as cucumbers. The dill and spice may be added ifdesired.

Beets. Beets must be scrubbed thoroughly and packedwhole. If peeled or sliced before being fermented the beets loseconsiderable color and flavor.

Beet Tops and Turnip Tops. These should be washedthoroughly and packed into the container without being cut up.

Peas. Green peas should be shelled and packed in the sameway as string beans. It is advisable to use fairly small containersfor peas, so that the quantity opened up will be used before it hasa chance to spoil.

Corn. Husk and clean the silk from the corn; wash andplace the ears on end in the jar, packing the jar nearly full. Pourthe brine over the ears; add cover and weights. Fermented corn hasa sour taste, which may not be relished if the corn is eaten alone.For this reason it will be preferable in most cases to preservecorn by canning, drying or by salting without fermentation.Fermented corn, however, may be used in the preparation of somedishes, such as chowders, omelets, and so forth, where its flavorwill be masked to some extent by the other ingredients. To somepeople this peculiar acid taste of fermented corn is not at allobjectionable.

Salting Without Fermentation. In this method thevegetables are packed with enough salt to prevent fermentation orthe growth of yeasts or molds. The vegetables preserved mostsatisfactorily by this method are dandelions, beet tops, turniptops, spinach, kale, chard, cabbage, cauliflower, string beans,green peas and corn. The following directions should befollowed:

The vegetables should be washed, drained and weighed. The amountof salt needed will be a quarter of the weight of the vegetables.Kegs or crocks make satisfactory containers. Put a layer ofvegetables about an inch thick on the bottom of the container.Cover this with salt. Continue making alternate layers ofvegetables and salt until the container is almost filled. The saltshould be evenly distributed so that it will not be necessary touse more salt than the quantity required in proportion to theweights of the vegetables that are used.

Cover the surface with a cloth, and a board of glazed plate.Place a weight on these and set aside in a cool place. Ifsufficient liquor to cover the vegetables has not been extractedpour in enough strong brine—one pound of salt to two quartsof water—to cover the surface round the corner.

The top layer of vegetables should be kept under the brine toprevent molding. There will be some bubbling at first. As soon asthis stops, set the container where it will not be disturbed untilready for use. Seal by pouring very hot paraffin over thesurface.

String beans should be cut in two-inch pieces. Peas should beshelled. Cabbage should be shredded in the same way as forsauerkraut. Corn, however, requires somewhat different treatment,and the directions for salting it are as follows:

Salted Corn. Husk the ears of corn and remove the silk.Cook in boiling water for about ten minutes to set the milk. Cutoff the corn from the cob with a sharp knife. Weigh the corn andpack in layers with a quarter its weight of fine salt, as describedabove.

Some experts insist on blanching and cold-dipping all vegetablesfor dry-salting without fermentation. They say that, though it isnot necessary, it makes the tissues softer and consequently theyare more easily penetrated by the salt. Furthermore, when preparingthese products for the table the salt soaks out more readily andthe products cook much more quickly if they have been blanched. Sowhere there is time it seems advisable to blanch for five minutesfor dry-salting.

If properly prepared and stored, fermented, brined anddry-salted products will keep for a long time. It is absolutelynecessary to prevent mold from growing on the surface of the brineof fermented vegetables, by the addition of paraffin or in someother way. Protection of the surface of dry-salted vegetables isdesirable, but not necessary if the containers are covered toprevent the evaporation of the brine. Most trouble with thefermented or salted products may be traced to carelessness inprotecting the surface of the brine.

POINTS TO REMEMBER

These are the special things to remember about fermentation,brining and dry-salting:

1. For fermentation, such as in making sauerkraut, use a quarterpound of salt to ten pounds of food material. For every 100 poundsof food add two and a half pounds of salt.

2. For brining use three-quarters of a cupful of salt and onecupful of vinegar to each gallon of water.

3. For dry-salting use one pound of salt to four pounds offood.

4. Do not use vinegar, pickle or pork barrels as containers forsalted foods unless they are very thoroughly scalded.

5. Thoroughly scald all containers, covers, weights and clothsbefore using.

6. If using glass jars put a cork inside to press the food down.If white vaseline is rubbed on the rubber rings the solution willnot get through rubber and be lost.

7. After adding salt or brine for fermented foods, cover thefood material with a piece of muslin or cheesecloth six incheslarger in diameter than the diameter of the container. Tuck this inround the top of the food, cover with weight and adjust lid ofcontainer.

8. During fermentation keep the cover on loosely until allbubbles cease. Test by slightly knocking container to see if anybubbles appear on the surface.

9. When you have made this test and discovered that the bubblinghas ceased, then it is time to protect the food from all organismswhich destroy lactic acid.

10. To protect the food cover with hot melted paraffin or liquidoil.

11. If evaporation takes place, add water or brine to make upthe original amount of water.

12. When dry sealing is used let the product stand twenty-fourto thirty-six hours, then add strong brine to fill the containers.The water from the vegetables usually only half fills thecontainers.

TABLE FOR PRESERVATION OF VEGETABLES BY SALT

CHAPTER XVI

CURING, SMOKING AND PRESERVING MEAT

Many farmers seem to have more trouble with the curing of meatsthan with the slaughtering. This part of the work is indeed veryimportant as it determines whether one will have good tasting curedmeat or meat that is too salty or possibly that is far removed fromthe original taste of the raw product.

It is worth every farmer or farmerette's attention to spend sometime on this problem as it pays so well in the resulting, goodtasting meat. Why not have a superior grade of home-cured meat aseasily as a poor grade? Work carefully and accurately done willproduce good results while work slovenly or carelessly done canproduce nothing but poor results. To cure meat so that it is notonly delicious but has good keeping qualities is an art andaccomplishment worth striving for. A pride in this work is just asfine and worth while as the housewife's pride in her culinary skillor the pride of any other professional in his or her line of work.To-day we are thinking of food and its problems as never before andit behooves us all to put more time, thought, care and skill on allthings that pertain to foods. And as meat is such an essential itemin our diet, meat problems should receive their due attention.

All meat that is to be cured should always be thoroughly cooledand cut into the desired convenient sizes before it is put into thebrine or packed in dry salt.

The pieces most commonly used for curing are the ham, shoulderand bacon pieces from pork. From beef we use the cheaper, toughercuts such as the plate, shoulder and chuck ribs. Mutton is seldomcured and preserved.

The ham should be cut off at the hock joint, the spare ribstaken out of the bacon, and the ragged edges trimmed off smooth. Ifragged edges or scraggy ends are left these portions will becometoo dry in the curing and will practically be wasted.

After all the animal heat is removed from the meat and it isproperly cut it is then ready for the curing. If salt is put on themeat before the animal heat is all removed, it will have a tendencyto shrink the muscles and form a coating on the outside which willnot allow the generating gases to escape. Meat should never be in afrozen condition when the salt is added as the frost will preventthe proper penetration of the brine and uneven curing will be theresult.

METHODS OF CURING MEAT

The two most common methods of curing meat are first the brineor sugar cure process and second the dry-curing process. Forgeneral farm use the brine cured process is the better. It requiresless time, less effort and not such an exacting place for the work.On most farms it is impossible to secure a desirable place in whichto do the dry-curing as the meat is exposed to rats, cats, fliesand other insects. The dry-curing requires considerable time to ruband salt the meat at different times while the only attention thatis necessary for brine-curing is to properly prepare and pack themeat in the vessel and prepare the brine for it.

UTENSILS FOR CURING

If possible use a round container for the curing. It is easierto put the meat in tightly, and the space can be used to betteradvantage. A hardwood barrel of some kind is excellent. Sirup,molasses or lard barrels which have been thoroughly cleaned arevery satisfactory. If you use a vinegar or an oil barrel it shouldbe well burned on the inside before using. Stone crocks or jars aresometimes used but they are expensive and cumbersome to handlebesides the constant danger of loss of brine from breakage.

PRESERVATIVES

For curing the meat the farmer usually uses salt, salt peter,white or brown sugar or molasses. These are the necessarypreservatives. The others such as boracic acid, borax and soda areoften used for sweetening the brine and to keep it from spoilingbut are not absolutely essential. The salt extracts moisture andacts as a preservative. The sugar or molasses imparts a nice flavorand has a tendency to keep the muscle tissue soft in contrast tothe salt, which has a tendency to make it hard and dry. So the saltand sugar have two distinct functions to perform, the one to hardenand preserve, the other to soften and sweeten. If you have afavorite recipe that has proved satisfactory and you want to usesorghum or molasses instead of sugar add one pound more of themolasses. If you have been accustomed to using 2 pounds of sugarthen use 3 pounds of the other sweetening.

Salt peter is not absolutely necessary as far as the preservingis concerned but it helps to hold the red color of the lean meat.If salt peter is not used the lean meat will be gray in color. Itmay possibly be a little tenderer if the salt peter is not used asthe salt peter tends to harden the meat. Chili salt peter can besubstituted in place of salt peter, if only four-fifths as much isused.

THE SUGAR BRINE CURE

All formulas for the sugar brine cure are practically the samevarying only a little in the proportions of sugar, salt and saltpeter. If you have a formula that you have tried for years and havefound it to be satisfactory there is no reason you should attempt anew one. But for those who want to try a different formula orrecipe I will give you this reliable one that is widely used andindorsed by several agricultural colleges.

The container should be scalded thoroughly. Sprinkle a layer ofsalt over the bottom and over each layer of meat as it is packedin, skin down. When full, cover meat with boards and weight downwith a stone so that all will be below the brine, which is made asfollows:

Weigh out for each 100 pounds of meat, 8 pounds of salt, 2pounds of sugar (preferably brown) or 3 pounds of molasses, and 2ounces of salt peter. Dissolve all in 4 gallons of water. Thisshould be boiled, and when thoroughly cooled, cover the meat. Sevendays after brine is put on, meat should be repacked in anotherbarrel in reverse order. The pieces that were on top should beplaced on the bottom. The brine is poured over as before. This isrepeated on the fourteenth and twenty-first days, thus giving aneven cure to all pieces. Bacon should remain in the brine from fourto six weeks, and hams six to eight weeks, depending on the size ofthe pieces. When cured, each piece should be scrubbed with tepidwater and hung to drain several days before smoking; no two piecesshould come in contact. For all curing always use dairy salt andnot table salt, as the latter contains starch to keep it dryand this starch may cause the meat to spoil. If you carefullyfollow these directions you will have delicious sugar-cured hamsand bacon.

CORNED BEEF

It is desirable to have an ample supply of corned beef on hand.For this any part of the beef may be used but the parts usuallyselected are the plate, rump, cross-ribs and brisket, which are thetougher cuts of the meat. The brisket and plate are especially goodbecause of the character of the fat, which is somewhat like atissue. Cut all around the meat to about the same thickness, sothat it will make an even layer in the barrel. It is best to removethe bone, although this is not necessary. Be sure to start thepickling or curing while the meat is perfectly fresh, but wellchilled. Do not wait like some farmers do until they think the meatis beginning to spoil and then salt it down just to save it. Allowten pounds of dairy salt to each 100 pounds of meat. Sprinkle alayer of the salt in the bottom of the crock, barrel, or whatevercontainer is used. Have the salt about one-fourth of an inch indepth. After the layer is in the bottom of the container put thecuts of meat in as closely as possible, making the layer five orsix inches in thickness, then put on another layer of salt,following that with another layer of meat. Repeat until the meatand salt have all been packed in the barrel, care being taken toreserve salt enough for a good layer on the top. Cover the meatwith a board and weight down with a stone and not aniron weight. Do not allow any meat to project from the saltor mold will start and the brine will spoil in a short time. Letthe meat stand over-night.

Prepare a brine by boiling 7 pounds salt, 3 pounds brown sugaror 6 pounds molasses, 2 ounces baking soda, 2 ounces salt peter and4 gallons water for every 100 pounds of meat. This quantity ofbrine should be sufficient to cover that amount.

Remove any scum that rises to the surface and filter the hotbrine through muslin. Set the brine aside, best over-night, tobecome perfectly cold before using. In the morning tip thecontainer in which the meat is packed so that all liquor which hasseparated from the meat over night may drain off. Cover the meatwith the cold brine. Put the container in a cool place. The curingwill be more satisfactory if the meat is left at a temperature ofabout 38 degrees F. Never let the temperature go above 50 degreesF. and there is some risk with even a temperature of 40 degrees F.if it is continuous. The sugar or molasses in the brine has atendency to ferment in a warm place.

After about five days the meat should be overhauled andrepacked, putting the pieces which were previously on the bottom ontop. Pour back the same brine, and five days later repeat theoverhauling. This may seem like some trouble and possibly look likea useless waste of time but it is well worth while as it insures amore rapid and uniform curing of the meat.

When unpacking the meat watch the brine to see that it is notropy or moldy. If you find either condition existing remove themeat and rinse each piece with cold water and after scalding thecontainer pack the meat as at first with a little salt. Scald andskim the brine and after it is cold pour it on the meat as before.You can use corned beef if necessary after a week in the cure, butit is not thoroughly cured until it has been from 20 to 30 days inthe brine. If kept for sixty days it will be salty enough to needfreshening before cooking.

If the meat has been corned during the winter, and is to be keptuntil summer, watch the brine closely during the spring as it ismore likely to spoil then than at any other time.

PLAIN SALT PORK

Rub each piece of meat with dairy salt, and pack closely in acontainer. Let stand over-night. The next day weigh out ten poundsof salt and two ounces of salt peter for each 100 pounds of meat,and dissolve in four gallons of boiling water. Pour this brine,when cold, over the meat, cover, and weight the meat down to keepit under the brine. The pork should be kept in the brine untilused.

SMOKING CURED MEATS

Of course many farmers never attempt to smoke their cured meatsbut use them directly from the brine but if possible it is moresatisfactory to smoke them before using for several reasons. First,the process of smoking helps to preserve the meat. The creosoteformed by the combustion of the wood closes the pores of the meatto a great extent thus excluding the air and helping it to keep andat the same time makes the meat objectionable to insects. In thesecond place, pickled or cured meats taste better and are morepalatable if smoked. Of course the smoking must be properly doneand the right kind of fuel must be used.

The Smokehouse and the Smoke. It is not necessary to havea regular smokehouse—although it is a delightful addition toany farm. Here again a community meat ring is of great advantage.One smokehouse will answer for many families. This is the idealarrangement and it can easily be managed if you are progressive andanxious enough to supply your family with delicious meat the yeararound saving time and money.

If, however, you have to do your own smoking and smoke only asmall quantity at a time a barrel or box will answer. Overheatingof the meat must be guarded against.

Green hickory or any of the hardwoods or maple should be usedfor the smoking. Pine or any other resinous woods should not beused as they give a disagreeable flavor to the meat. If it isimpossible to get hardwood use corncobs rather than soft wood. Thecorncobs will leave a dirty deposit on the meat, which is carbon.It is not objectionable only from the standpoint of "looks." Themeat which you are going to smoke should be removed from the brinethe day before the smoking. A half hour soaking in cold waterprevents a crust of salt from forming on the outside. Do not hangthe meat so that any two pieces touch as this would prevent uniformsmoking.

Always start with a slow fire so as to warm the meat upgradually. Thirty-six to forty-eight hours of heat as near 120degrees F. as possible will be sufficient under mostcircumstances.

How to Store Smoked Meats. A dry, cool cellar or atticwhere there is good circulation is a good place for storage. If themeat is to be used soon the meat can hang without coverings but forlong keeping you will have to wrap it when cold in waxed paper andthen in burlap, muslin or canvas bags and then hang it, after it istied very tightly to prevent insects from getting in, in a roomwith a cool uniform temperature.

Some farmers get satisfactory results by wrapping the meats instrong bags and then burying them in oat bins.

SAUSAGE

Frequently when animals are butchered on the farm there areoften wholesome portions of the carcass that are not used. Alltrimmings, cheeks, liver, tongue, breast and other pieces can bemade into bologna, headcheese or some other form of sausage.Sausage making is an art worth acquiring. There is always a gooddemand for fresh and smoked country sausage, so if you wish to sellsome you will have no trouble in finding a market for your productif it is a good one.

To make sausage you should have a meat grinder, which is anabsolute essential on every farm. If you do not have one alreadythen buy a No. 22 or No. 32.

In addition to the grinder you will need a stuffer attachmentwhich costs very little. A knife, cord, string, a clean tube andcasings or muslin bags will complete your equipment. The muslinbags can be of any size but the easiest to handle are 12 incheslong and 2 inches in diameter. If the sausage is stuffed into thesebags they must be paraffined for home use. If you do not want tobother with casings or bags put the sausage in stone crocks or tinpans with a layer of lard or paraffin on top.

The best sausage is made by using 3 parts of lean meat to one offat. When using the grinder, distribute the lean and fat meat asuniformly as possible.

You are not necessarily limited to pork sausage, for there aremany other delicious varieties you can make. They vary in thedifferent kinds of meat used and in the different seasonings andspices.

Breakfast sausage has bread added to it; frankfurters are smokedpork sausage in casings; liver sausage has pork and beef or vealand bread in it; and blood sausage, as its name suggests, has blood(preferably from a hog) added to it. Then there is tomato sausagewhich is made of pulp from fresh tomatoes, pork sausage andcrackers. Summer sausage is made in the winter and kept for useduring the summer. After being dried and cured it will keep formonths. Brain sausage is delicious. To make it calves' brains aremixed with lean pork. Cambridge sausage has rice added to it.

Headcheese is usually made from the hog's head but odds and endsalso can be used not only from pork but from beef and veal.

Scrapple usually means the head and feet of hogs but it can bemade from any hog meat. It is a good food as it uses cornmeal. Itmakes a change from fried mush and most men working on a farmrelish it.

Sausage can be made from mutton mixed with pork in much the sameway as beef is used for similar purposes. A general formula wouldbe 2 parts of mutton to 3 parts pork with seasonings.

With a plentiful supply of good home-cured and home-smokedmeats, together with several varieties of sausages, you can feelyou are well equipped to feed your family with its share of meat.Everything will have been utilized, nothing will have been wasted.You produced your own meat, you slaughtered and cured and smoked itand put all trimmings and other "left-overs" into appetizing foodfor your family and you have saved money. You have utilized thingsat hand and required no transportation facilities. And best of all,you have the very finest in the land for your family and that givesone a perfectly justifiable pride in the work accomplished.

CHAPTER XVII

PRESERVED OR "CANNED" EGGS

As one-half of the yearly egg crop is produced in March, April,May and June consumers would do well to store enough at that timeto use when production is light. Fifty dozen eggs should be storedfor a family of five to use during the months of October, November,December and January, at which time the market price of eggs is atthe highest.

When canning them the eggs must be fresh, preferably notmore than two or three days old. This is the reason why it is muchmore satisfactory to put away eggs produced in one's own chickenyard or one's neighbor's.

Infertile eggs are best if they can be obtained—so, afterthe hatching exclude the roosters from the flock and kill them fortable use as needed.

The shells must be clean. Washing an egg with a soiledshell lessens its keeping quality. The protective gelatinouscovering over the shell is removed by water and when this is gonethe egg spoils more rapidly. Use the soiled eggs for immediate useand the clean ones for storage.

The shells also must be free from even the tiniest crack.One cracked egg will spoil a large number of sound eggs when packedin water glass.

Earthenware crocks are good containers. The crocks must beclean and sound. Scald them and let them cool completely beforeuse. A crock holding six gallons will accommodate eighteen dozeneggs and about twenty-two pints of solution. Too large crocks arenot desirable, since they increase the liability of breaking someof the eggs, and spoiling the entire batch.

It must be remembered that the eggs on the bottom crack firstand that those in the bottom of the crock are the last to beremoved for use. Eggs can be put up in smaller crocks and the eggsput in the crock first should be used first in the household.

METHOD OF STORING

There are many satisfactory methods of storing eggs. Thecommercial method is that of cold storage and if it were not forthis method winter eggs would be beyond the average purse.

The fact that eggs have been held in cold storage does notnecessarily mean that they are of low quality. Carefully handledcold-storage eggs often are of better quality than fresh local eggsthat have been improperly cared for.

In the home they may be packed by several methods: Salt, oats orbran; covering them with vaseline, butter, lard, paraffin orprepared ointments; immersion in brine, salicylic acid, water glass(sodium silicate) or limewater.

Any of these methods will keep the eggs for short periods ifstored in a cool place. The salt, oats and bran are verysatisfactory. The ointments also are satisfactory. The water glassand limewater will keep eggs without loss for a year. However, itis not wise to put down more eggs than is necessary to tide overthe period of high price.

WATER GLASS METHOD

"Water glass" is known to the chemist as sodium silicate. It canbe purchased by the quart from druggists or poultry supply men. Itis a pale yellow, odorless, sirupy liquid. It is diluted in theproportion of one part of silicate to nine parts of distilledwater, rain water, or other water. In any case, the water shouldbe boiled and then allowed to cool. Half fill the vessel withthis solution and place the eggs in it, being careful not to crackthem. The eggs can be added a few at a time until the container isfilled. Be sure to keep about two inches of water glass above theeggs. Cover the crock to prevent evaporation and place it in thecoolest place available from which the crock will not have to bemoved. Wax paper covered over and tied around the top of the crockcan be used. Inspect the crock from time to time and replace anywater that has evaporated with cool boiled water.

LIMEWATER METHOD

Limewater is also satisfactory for preserving eggs and isslightly less expensive than water glass. A solution is made byplacing two or three pounds of unslaked lime in five gallons ofwater, which has been boiled and allowed to cool, and allowing themixture to stand until the lime settles and the liquid is clear.The eggs should be placed in a clean earthenware jar or othersuitable vessel and covered to a depth of two inches with theliquid. Remove the eggs as desired, rinse in clean, cold water anduse immediately.

If using the limewater method add a little of the lime sedimentto insure a constantly saturated solution. If a thin white crustappears on the limewater solution it is due to the formation ofcalcium carbonate coming in contact with the air and consequentlydoes no harm.

CANDLING EGGS AT HOME

If you purchase the eggs that are to be stored it is safer tocandle them. Examining eggs to determine their quality is called"candling." Every one knows that some eggs are better than others,but the ease with which the good ones can be picked out is notgenerally understood. The better the quality of eggs, the surer thehousewife can be that they will keep satisfactorily.

HOMEMADE CANDLER

The equipment for candling usually consists of either a wooden,a metal, or a cardboard box and a kerosene lamp or an electriclight. A very inexpensive egg candler for home use can be made froma large shoe-box or similar cardboard box. Remove the ends of thebox, and cut a hole about the size of a half-dollar in one side.Slip the box over the lamp or electric bulb, darken the room, holdthe egg, with the large end up, before the opening in the box andits quality can easily be judged.

SIGNS OF A GOOD EGG

When held before the opening of the candle, good eggs will lookclear and firm. The air cell (the white spot at the large end ofthe eggs) should be small, not larger than a dime, and the yolk maybe dimly seen in the center of the egg. A large air cell and adark, freely moving yolk indicate that the egg is stale.

If the shell contents appear black or very dark, the egg isabsolutely unfit for food. If you are in doubt about the quality ofany eggs you are candling break a few of them into a dish andexamine them. This is an excellent way to learn to know how goodand bad eggs look when they are being candled.

Discard all eggs that have shrunken, loose contents, a wateryappearance, cracked and thin shells. Eggs of this description willnot keep and are apt to spoil the eggs close around them. Any eggthat floats in the solution should be discarded.

When packing eggs whether in salt, oats, or in solution placethem with small end down. When packing them in salt, oats, etc., donot allow any two eggs to touch.

PACKING THE EGGS

One gallon of water glass as purchased will make enoughpreservative to preserve from 75 to 100 dozen eggs.

Three gallons of either water glass solution or limewatersolution will preserve from 200 to 240 dozen eggs according to thesize of the eggs and the shape of the container.

The cost of preserving eggs by the water glass method is aboutone cent per dozen eggs, not considering the cost of the container.The lime water method is still cheaper.

The following gives the sizes of jars with approximate capacityfor eggs and the amount of water glass solution required to coverthe eggs:

1 gallon jar—40 eggs, 3½ pints of solution or1¾ qt.

2 gallon jar—80 eggs, 8 pints of solution or 2 quarts.

3 gallon jar—120 eggs, 11 pints of solution or 5½quarts.

4 gallon jar—160 eggs, 14½ pints of solution or7¼ quarts.

5 gallon jar—200 eggs, 18 pints of solution or 9quarts.

6 gallon jar—216 eggs, 22 pints of solution or 11quarts.

10 gallon jar—400 eggs, 36 pints of solution or 18quarts.

HOW TO USE PRESERVED EGGS

When the eggs are to be used, remove them as desired, rinse inclean, cold water, and use immediately.

Eggs preserved in water glass can be used for soft boiling orpoaching up to November. Before boiling such eggs prick a tiny holein the large end of the shell with a needle to keep them fromcracking, as the preservative seals the pores of the shell andprevents the escape of gases, which is possible in the strictlyfresh egg.

They are satisfactory for frying until about December. From thattime until the end of the usual storage period—that is untilMarch—they can be used for omelettes, scrambled eggs,custards, cakes and general cookery. As the eggs age, the whitebecomes thinner and is harder to beat. The yolk membrane becomesmore delicate and it is correspondingly difficult to separate thewhites from the yolks. Sometimes the white of the egg is tingedpink after very long keeping in water glass. This is due, probably,to a little iron which is in the sodium silicate, but whichapparently does not injure the eggs for food purposes.

CHAPTER XVIII

HOME STORAGE OF VEGETABLES

Towards the end of the canning season most housewives have usedevery available glass jar and tin can and hesitate about purchasinga new supply. They have dried and brined many products and yet theyfeel, and rightly so, that they would like still more vegetablesfor winter use. There still remains another method that they mayemploy to provide themselves with a plentiful supply of vegetablesand these vegetables can be in the fresh state too. Neither canned,dried, pickled or salted but fresh.

Canning, drying, pickling and salting are essential andnecessary but they can not take the place of storage. To keepvegetables in their natural state is the easiest and simplest formof food preservation. Of course, you must take proper precautionsagainst freezing and decay. If you do this you can have an abundantsupply of many kinds of fresh vegetables all winter, where climaticand living conditions will permit. Storage costs but little moneyand little effort and yet it is very satisfactory.

There are many vegetables that can be stored to good advantage.They are: Beets, Brussels Sprouts, Beans, Celery, Carrots, Chicoryor Endive, Cabbage, Cauliflower, Kohl-rabi, Lima Beans, Onions,Sweet Potatoes, Squash (Winter), Salsify or Vegetable Oyster,Tomatoes, Turnips.

To get good results in any kind of storage, you must observefour things:

• 1. Proper ventilation.
• 2. Proper regulation of temperature.
• 3. Sufficient moisture.
• 4. Good condition of vegetables when stored.

There are six different ways to store vegetables. They are:cellar storage, pit storage, outdoor cellar or cave storage, atticstorage, sand boxes and pantry storage.

CELLAR STORAGE

We will first of all consider cellar or basement storage. One ofthe most convenient places for the storage of vegetables is a cool,well-ventilated and reasonably dry cellar underneath the house.This cellar must have windows or some method of ventilation, mustnot be too warm and not so cold that food will freeze. If there isproper ventilation there can be some dampness without injury to thevegetables. If your cellar or basement floods easily or has waterstanding in it anywhere it should not be used for vegetablestorage.

If there is a furnace in the cellar or basement a small room asfar as possible from the heating plant should be partitioned off.Do not build a room in the middle of the cellar, for two sides ofthe room should consist of outside walls.

If possible have two outside windows for proper regulation ofthe temperature and for good ventilation. If you cannot have twowindows have one.

A very good arrangement for constant circulation of air consistsin having a stove-pipe inserted through one of the lower panes ofthe window to admit cold air. One of the upper panes of the windowcan be removed to allow for the escape of warm air. That is, ofcourse, if the window is made of nine or twelve small panes ofsquares of glass. In severely cold weather this upper pane can bereplaced or the opening stuffed up in some way.

If you do not have an old stove-pipe you can make a wooden flueof old boards or old discarded boxes.

Most cellars and basements are now made with concrete floors.The ideal floor for storage purposes is an earth floor. However, wecan put two or three inches of sand on our concrete floors and getgood results. Sprinkle the sand with water from time to time.

Put the vegetables that are to be stored in boxes, baskets,barrels or crates. Use containers that hold only two or threebushels apiece. If larger boxes or barrels are used there is alwaysdanger of heating and decay. Of course, proper precautions shouldbe taken against mice.

An excellent way to prevent wilting of crops and shrinkage is toput moist leaves, oak or maple, in the containers with thevegetables. Moist sand is sometimes used but it is much heavier tohandle than the leaves. It is no difficult matter to rake the lawnwhen you are ready to store the vegetables.

The vegetables that are adapted for cellar storage are beets,cabbage, carrots, celery, parsnips, potatoes, salsify andturnips.

PIT STORAGE

There are two kinds of pits that may be used for storage. Thosethat are not frost-proof and those which are frost-proof.

Some vegetables are not injured by being held in a frozencondition during the winter months. Cabbage is not injured bymoderate frost. Cabbage and parsnips will stand freezing and alittle thawing, so they can be put in pits or better still, boxesor barrels set into the ground may be used. Make the pit moundshaped. If the earth is mounded around the box, barrel or pit,surface water cannot run in.

If using this kind of storage do not store the products untilboth the ground and the products are frozen solid. The idea is tokeep the vegetables frozen or to have very few freezings andthawings, and those few should be gradual.

After the pit has been made or the box or barrel has been setinto the ground and filled with vegetables, it should be coveredfirst with a piece of burlap or carpet, then with a mouse-proofboard cover and finally with straw or similar material. When takenfrom the pit, the vegetables can be thawed out over night in coldwater, after which they can be kept in the cellar for a shortlength of time.

The pits for keeping vegetables free from frost must becarefully and thoughtfully made, but they are cheap and are veryuseful and practical when caves or cellars are not convenient.

The frost-proof pit for storing vegetables should always beplaced in as well-drained a place as possible. A shallow excavationshould be made from one to two feet deep, four feet wide and aslong as desired. Line the pit with straw, hay or leaves, then placethe vegetables in a conical pile on the straw. Cover the vegetableswith six inches of the material used in making the lining. This iscovered with three or four inches of earth. The straw is allowed toextend up through the earth at the top of the pile, thus assuringventilation.

When it becomes colder add more covering to the pit by anotherlayer of straw and a layer of earth. In very cold climates a layerof manure or corn stalks will afford protection against frost.

It is well to make several small pits rather than one larger onefor the reason that when a pit has once been opened it is difficultto protect the remaining vegetables from frost.

It is advisable to store several varieties of vegetables in onepit so that when each pit is opened you have a variety ofvegetables. If you follow this plan separate the various crops byusing straw or leaves.

Pits are entered by chopping a hole through the frozen earth atone end, large enough to reach into or crawl into. After thevegetables have been obtained keep the hole stuffed and coveredmost carefully and deeply with old sacks and straw.

If the smaller pits are used, a decidedly better arrangement,take out all the vegetables in the pit and those that are notneeded for immediate consumption can be placed in the cellarstorage room, or other cool place, until needed. Do not use thosepits if you live where winter rains are abundant as the pits willbecome water soaked and the vegetables will suffer more or lessdecay.

OUTDOOR CELLAR STORAGE

Outdoor cellars or caves may be cheaply built for more or lesstemporary use or they may be very expensively built of concrete,brick, or clay blocks. Of course, the latter are permanent storingplaces and offer perfect storage for potatoes, carrots, cabbages,parsnips, beets, turnips and salsify.

The objectionable features of indoor cellar storage is that suchstorage does not furnish ideal conditions for keeping thevegetables fresh for any great length of time.

The objectionable feature to the pit storage is theinaccessibility to these pits during severe weather.

The outdoor cellar or cave overcomes both these objections. Theoutdoor cellar or cave is an underground structure, preferablybuilt in a hillside and fully covered with earth except at one endonly where the entrance is located. If there are doors at both endsit is almost impossible to prevent freezing in very cold weather.The cave door should fit perfectly and there should be a hatchwayor door over the steps leading down to the cave door.

A very satisfactory inexpensive cellar can be made by digging anexcavation about 5 ft. deep and in this erecting a frame by settingposts in rows near the dirt walls. Saw these posts off at uniformheight and place plates on their tops. On these plates placerafters. Board up completely with the exception of the entrance.Cover the whole with dirt or sod and in cold climates add a layerof straw or fodder.

A ventilation must be provided in the roof at the back end. Asewer tile with the bell end up makes a very good flue. A dirtfloor is satisfactory as it contains moisture. If there is anyseepage use a drain tile to carry it off.

The more pretentious permanent cellars are provided with airspaces to furnish insulation; are provided with large ventilationshafts through the roof and cold air intakes under the floor.Thorough drainage is obtained by placing a line of tile around theoutside wall and also by having the air intake serve as a drain forsurplus water that might get into the cave. The floor is cement orconcrete. Such a cave is expensive but is a permanent structure anda good addition to any farm or estate. If properly made it ispossible to maintain a temperature of 34 to 38 degrees without muchfluctuation during the winter months. This kind of storage is notonly adapted for vegetables but apples as well. It is betteradapted to the Northern, Eastern and Western States than to theSouthern States, where it is likely to be warm at the time thevegetables are ready for storage. When making the cave, have it asnear as possible to the kitchen door. Sometimes caves are made sothat they can be entered from the house, cellar or porch.

ATTIC STORAGE

Some vegetables such as onions, squashes, sweet potatoes andpumpkins can be stored in the attic in crates which allow freecirculation of air. They must be absolutely free from bruises andmust be well ripened and cured. To cure the vegetables expose themto the air for a few days in the shade. Remove the tops of onionsbefore storing. The attic is much better for storing onions thanthe basement. Squashes are susceptible to cold and moisture, so aresuitable for the attic.

Be very careful in handling the squashes to prevent breaking thestems off. Watch pumpkins and squash carefully and at the firstsign of decay, use immediately or can.

SAND BOX STORAGE

Sand boxes in cellars, pits or caves are desirable for beets,turnips, kohl-rabi, carrots, winter radishes and rutabagas. Thesand keeps them cold and prevents evaporation. Kohl-rabi should betender when stored.

PANTRY STORAGE

Where there is no attic or where it is inconveniently reached,the products that are adapted to a very dry place can be stored onthe pantry shelves or in a dry cellar near the furnace. They areonions, squashes, pumpkins and sweet potatoes.

The keeping qualities of all these vegetables, no matter whatstorage is used, depends chiefly upon their condition when placedin storage. All products to be stored must be mature, but notovergrown. Root crops should be dry while the ground is in goodworking condition. All vegetables should be allowed to becomesurface dry before placing them in storage.

White or Irish potatoes, especially, should not be exposed tobright sunlight any length of time. Only vegetables free fromdisease or injury should be stored. Any that are damaged can beused immediately, or can be canned or dried.

Further particulars for the storing of fresh vegetables aregiven in the following tables.

CHAPTER XIX

HOW TO MARKET HOME CANNED PRODUCE

You have some delicious jellies, jams, canned fruits andvegetables that you wish to sell and you do not know just how to goabout it. There are at your disposal several means of selling:

1. Through advertising.

2. Through personal letters to desirable shops, delicatessens,boarding-houses, colleges, etc.

3. By direct salesmanship; that is, by making personal visits tothe buyers, either homes or stores.

4. Through jobbers to whom you pay a commission on allsales.

5. Through coöperative selling.

Perhaps the cheapest and easiest way for you to handle yourproblem is to employ the method so much used to-day and that iswayside advertising. Wayside advertising costs practically nothingand yet it pays.

Autos are everywhere these days. You cannot take a country ridewithout seeing many signboards at the farm entrances advertisingchickens, fresh eggs, vegetables, honey, apples and canned goods. Ihave a friend who drives 50 miles every fall for her honey. Shefirst found it by seeing the sign in front of the farm and now shereturns year after year because she thinks no other honey is justlike it. She would never have discovered it if that farm woman hadnot been clever enough to think of advertising her goods in thischeap way. My friend told all her other "auto" friends, so thecountry woman has a splendid outlet for her product now. If youlive on a good road that is patronized at all by autoists you oughtto get your signboard up at once.

We often pass a farm where the sign "Fresh Home-Made Candy"always tempts us to stop and buy. What autoist could resist thatsign? And here miles from town this clever woman is carrying on aprofitable side trade, which is netting her a nice little yearlyincome. Her candy is good; we go often and so do many others. Shehas turned her profession into a paying proposition. She could sendher candy away by parcel post or by some other means, but she wouldnot be so far ahead as she is now.

In addition to your wayside advertising you could advertise inpapers, magazines, etc. Many producers believe strongly inadvertising in daily and weekly papers. You can quickly find outwhether this kind of advertising pays. Give it a trial at least.After you have spent ten or fifteen dollars in advertising youought to know whether it pays.

Use one or two of the city papers near you, taking thepublisher's advice as to the best day of the week on which to runthe advertisement, the size and the position of the "ad." The firstcost of getting your customers may seem high, but with goodproducts you could soon build up a list of people to whom sales canbe made year after year.

This form of advertising has many advantages. If youradvertising copy is clever and you have some novelty to offer, youought to receive many orders. If orders come, you get the fullretail price, the shipping charges are paid by the customer, andcash comes with every order. And it means, if your customers arepleased, that you have permanent customers. The initial cost isgreat and there is a risk, but remember "it pays to advertise."

There are millions of city women who never can a jar of fruit orput up a single glass of preserves or jelly who will be glad tohave you send your goods direct to them by parcel post. But youmust get in touch with these women either through waysideadvertising, magazine and paper advertising or by directsalesmanship, although very few women have the time for personalcalls.

Considerable business can be done by letter writing to stores,restaurants and boarding-houses in distant cities. It may beimpossible for you to go personally, in which case letters oftenbring the desired results. Make your letters business-like andtypewrite them. Do not be discouraged if you do not get manyreplies at first as there are at least fifty per cent who pay noattention to such letters. But this form of advertising usuallypays.

Another method followed by many home canners is that ofmarketing direct to the retail grocers, care being taken, ofcourse, to protect these grocers by not selling to more than onemember in a community. One of the great advantages, of this directsalesmanship is that little selling effort is required on your partafter the first arrangements have been made. The nearby market planis greatly to be recommended because you can keep in touch withyour selling concern, build up a line of desirable goods andpromote its sale by advertising.

Of course you can get more money for your goods if you have timeand the opportunity to sell direct to the consumers. Youwill of necessity have to sell cheaper to the grocers because theytoo must make their profit. Marketing direct to the consumer has aspecial appeal to many people. Where time is available and thecommunity accustomed to purchasing in this manner, this methodoffers great possibilities. The profits are of course higher butthe results more uncertain, for it is somewhat difficult to gaugethe demands of the public, and the canner must assume the riskordinarily taken by the merchant.

It takes time and patience to develop a list of customers but ifyou have time in the winter to do this you will find it will payyou well. If you can get customers who are willing to pay goodprices for quality, scrupulous cleanliness and the homemade flavor,you will get a larger gross return than if you sold throughmerchants, but if your time is valuable it would scarcely pay youto take individual orders and deliver goods.

There is still another way and that is to market yourhome-canned products in large lots to jobbers, but if this plan isto be pursued successfully there must be a reasonably large packand wholesale rates. This method produces more uniform profits yearby year, for after a reputation is established the home-cannerwould not experience great difficulty in thus disposing of herentire output by contract, providing the quality was high and theprice demands not excessive.

But the greatest and best way of all to find a profitable marketfor your things is to coöperate with other canners in your ownneighborhood and find a market for quantity as well as quality.Delicatessens, club houses, tea shops, college dormitories,restaurants and hotels, all pay good prices for fine quality. Nobig buyer will bother to purchase one or two dozen of this or that.He wants dozens of things. One of the very best profitable ways tosell with little trouble is through quantities. Get all the womenin your community to bring together cans of fruit and preserves,etc., to some marketing place. Find out how many jars of currantjelly you have, how many cans of peas and corn, how many ofcherries, etc., and then notify your buyer or prospectivebuyer.

Coöperative selling has been undertaken and foundprofitable. In some cases, especially in localities frequented bythe summer boarder or the automobile tourist, sales are made directto customers who come to the salesrooms of the organizations or totheir special sales; in other cases goods are sent by parcel postand other means. The women in the community can hire or beg a roomwhere all the women of the community can sell their products forindividual profit. This room should be located on the directautomobile road in order to attract tourists and automobileparties. An annual membership fee of from 50 cents to $1 generallyis required for these organizations, and a charge of from 10 to 15per cent of the selling price usually is made to cover the cost ofselling. In a few instances the managing board has been able tosecure an efficient person to take charge of the enterprise for aspecified percentage on the sales.

Wholesale grocery concerns are interested in bigthings—orders can be placed with them. Soda fountains intowns and cities are excellent customers for the freshest eggs theycan get. They are encroaching more and more on the trade of therestaurants and lunch rooms. Many serve light luncheons and wouldbe interested in good butter, preserves and jams. When you get alist of names and addresses write to several dozen places, tellwhat your organization has in the way of guaranteed eggs, homemadeproducts and what kind of service you could offer in the way ofregular shipments. When orders come it is an easy matter to look upat your local bank the responsibility of any customer, so there islittle risk. Or cash can be insisted upon with every order,although large concerns prefer to pay after receipt of goods andbill.

Each woman in this coöperative organization must keep hergoods up to a certain standard, for an inferior lot of goods sentto a large firm might ruin a reputation.

Three things govern the sale of cannedproducts—appearances, quality and price. So many things enterinto consideration of prices obtainable that it is difficult to seta standard which will be applicable to different sections. Thequality of the pack, its neatness, the method of marketing and manyother matters must be considered in deciding this all-importantpoint. As a general proposition, however, if the products areuniformly high grade, prices may be obtained which are somewhat inexcess of factory-made products marketed in the same manner.

Like any other new industry, the selling should be developedslowly in order to minimize the possibility of loss and to assurestable business. One should study the situation carefully both fromthe manufacturing and marketing standpoints. Plan the season'scampaign before taking up the work, and do not let the enthusiasmof the beginner interfere with good business judgment.

The selling when rightly managed can be made a successfulbusiness or it can be turned into a liability through careless,unbusinesslike methods and insufficient or unwise planning.Properly handled it will pay well for the investment of time andmoney, and offer opportunity for the disposal of surplushome-canned, home-grown, homemade and home-prepared products of allkinds.

LIVING UP TO CONTRACTS

Care must be taken not to contract for more than can bedelivered. This would be bad business, and business principles mustgovern in selling home products just as in other enterprises if oneis to be increasingly successful from year to year.

Occasionally a quantity of fruit which will not meet the rigidrequirements of the canning business can be turned into preserves,jellies or fruit juices. Preserves and jellies should be marketedin glass, and fruit juices in bottles, although some manufacturersare now marketing some of these products in fiber cups. This lineof products will require some additional equipment, but there is asteady demand for such homemade things and many women are derivingprofits through the sale of their tastily prepared jellies, just aspickles and condiments have lined the pocketbooks of ambitioushousewives before now.

Home canning for the market is essentially a matter ofspecializing and of giving the consumer a better product than he isaccustomed to purchase. Too much emphasis cannot be placed upon themaintenance of a high standard for home-canned goods. Care shouldbe taken that every jar measures up to a rigid standard, for asingle one which falls below grade will neutralize the reputationand standing obtained by the sale of a dozen jars of perfectproduct. A quality is necessary which will warrant a money-backguarantee on every jar.

THE USE OF LABELS IN CANNING

Labels for both tin cans and glass jars should tell the truth asto the quality, weight and kind of product within the pack. Beforeadopting a trade-mark and label, consult the Bureau of Chemistry,U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C., as to labelrequirements for canned goods prepared for the market.

It pays to show samples of all your canned goods at county andstate fairs. You may win many premiums. Goods which are canned withpreservatives should be debarred from all exhibits.

PACKING GLASS FOR SHIPPING

Wrap each glass or jar separately in rumpled newspapers orexcelsior and pack in barrels or boxes. Line these containers withpapers or excelsior.

Strong corrugated parcel post boxes can be obtained for thispurpose. Wrap each jar with excelsior or paper before putting it inits proper section. If sending large amounts send all boxes or allbarrels, do not mix them,—sending half barrels and halfboxes—as large concerns like uniform packages.

PACKING TIN FOR SHIPPING

Two dozen cans is the regulation shipping case. Have theshipping boxes of uniform size. Put the two dozen cans in the boxand nail on the top. Be exceedingly careful not to drive nails intothe cans. On both ends of the box paste labels such as are on thecans, telling what the contents of the box are.

Address the box carefully using marking ink or a regulation tag.If a tag, tack with small tacks on the top of the box. Write yourown name and address on the tag distinctly as the sender. Beas careful of the tacks as you were of the nails. Always get areceipt from your express agent if shipping by express as this willbe necessary in case of non-receipt of goods.

Send to the concern or individual to whom you are sending thegoods a list of the things you have sent. This is called aninvoice. Keep a copy of the invoice for yourself so if any questionarises you will know what you are talking about.

SHIPPING TERMS

C.O.D. means collect on delivery. The purchaser pays the priceof the products to the transportation company before they aredelivered.

F.O.B. means free on board. For instance: if you send a shipmentof canned goods to Chicago at $6.00 per case f.o.b. Charles City itmeans that you deliver the canned goods to the freight depot atCharles City and the purchaser pays both the price per case and thefreight. If you deliver them f.o.b. Chicago it means you deliverthem to the freight depot at Charles City and also pay the freightto Chicago.

Bill of Lading with Sight Draft Attached is a call for the moneybefore the purchaser can take the products from the freightoffice.

Drop Shipment. If a wholesale firm requests that you ship directto another firm buying from him, thus avoiding two shipments, thisis called a drop shipment.

Lot Shipment. If you ship two or more barrels or cases as a "lotshipment" to the same destination they may be sent at a cheaperrate than if each were shipped separately.

LIST OF FIRMS FURNISHING SUPPLIES FOR CANNING, DRYING,PRESERVING, ETC

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